Philip of Spain

by Henry Kamen

  166. Philip to Zúñiga, 25 Sept. 1572, AGS:E/K 1529 f.65.

  167. Philip to Requesens, 19 Sept. 1572, Favre, vol.30 f.21.

  168. Philip to Diego de Zúñiga, 26 Sept. 1572, AGS:E/K 1529 f.66.

  169. Gómez-Centurión, pp.72–5.

  170. AGS:E/K 1529 ff.95–6.

  6. Dropping the Pilot 1572–1580

  1. Madrid, 10 Dec. 1574: BZ 144 f.34.

  2. Notes by king in AGS:E leg.2842.

  3. Zúñiga to Granvelle, Rome, 17 Oct. 1574, BZ 62 f.101.

  4. Zúñiga to Granvelle, Rome, 11 Dec. 1574, ibid. f.112.

  5. Cardinal Cervantes to king, 13 Jan. 1575, AGS:E leg.335 f.285.

  6. King to duke of Sessa, Guadalupe, 27 Dec. 1576, Favre, vol.28 f.83.

  7. ‘Lo que se trato en Consejo a 6 de marzo 1577 sobre lo de los Moriscos’, AGS:E leg.335 ff.417–19. Six members, including Alba and Ruy Gomez, were present.

  8. King to marquis of Ayamonte, Madrid, 16 Jan. 1578, BL Add.28263 ff.172–3.

  9. CODOIN, XXXVIII, 179.

  10. I do not share Parker's view (Dutch Revolt, p. 161) that ‘at no stage in 1572 and 1573 does Philip II appear to have considered ending the rebellion other than by force of arms’. It was precisely Philip's drift towards a peaceful solution that alarmed Alba in 1572.

  11. Ineptly, it seems: Koenigsberger, p.179.

  12. St Gouard to Charles IX, 31 May 1572, in Groen van Prinsterer, p.122.

  13. Morillon to Granvelle, 11 Aug. 1572, ibid., p.114.

  14. Esteban Prats to king, 30 Nov. 1572, CODOIN, LXXV, 125.

  15. Gracián to Zayas, 25 July 1573, AGS:E leg.155 f.52.

  16. CODOIN, LXXV, 135.

  17. Ibid., XXXVI, 119–30.

  18. Ibid., LXXXV, 59, 62.

  19. Secretary Prats to king, Nov. 1572, ibid., LXXV, 129.

  20. Ibid., 163, 173.

  21. Granvelle to Juan de Zúñiga, 8 Oct. 1573: BZ 129 f.148.

  22. Requesens to Juan de Zúñiga, 29 July 1573, Favre, Vol.30 f.327.

  23. Zayas to Montano, 17 July 1573, CODOIN, XLI, 292.

  24. Gracián to Zayas, 13 Aug. 1573, AGS:E leg.155 f.63.

  25. IVDJ, 76, f.461, ‘Presidente Juan de Ovando sobre el desempeño’.

  26. CODOIN, LXXV, 190, 199, 236.

  27. Cited Marañón, I, 156 n.53.

  28. J. M. March, Don Luis de Requeséns en el gobierno de Milán 1571–1573, Madrid 1943, p.315.

  29. Favre, vol.30 ff.30, 48.

  30. A copy, dated 20 Oct. 1573, in ibid. ff.71–4.

  31. Cabrera, II, 125–6.

  32. BL Add.28354 f.457.

  33. Boyden, p.2.

  34. A.W. Lovett, Philip II and Mateo Vázquez de Leca: the government of Spain (1572–1592), Geneva 1977, p.29.

  35. IVDJ, 51 f.166.

  36. Cabrera, II, 449.

  37. Requesens to Zúñiga, 18 Jan. 1574, IVDJ, 67 no.5.

  38. Requesens to Pedro Manuel, 31 Dec. 1574, Favre, vol.30 f.371.

  39. Gómez-Centurión, p.115.

  40. Pi Corrales, I, 377–437.

  41. Ibid., 462–5.

  42. AGS:E leg.156 ff.105, 141.

  43. Cited in Gómez-Centurión, p. 175 n.207.

  44. Hopperus to king, 3 Sept. 1575, AGS:E leg.157 f.229.

  45. Cf. Gómez-Centurión, pp.225, 237, and articles there cited.

  46. Vázquez to king, 31 May 1574, IVDJ, 51 f.31.

  47. Cf. Nathan Wachtel, Los vencidos. Los indios del Perú frente a la conquista española (1530–1570). Madrid 1976, p.277.

  48. AHN Inq leg.1650 ff.1250, 1266. Cf. Marcel Bataillon, Estudios sobre Bartolomé de las Casas, Barcelona 1976, chap.XII.

  49. The president of the Council of the Indies, Juan de Ovando, had the Las Casas manuscripts brought to Madrid for study: L. Hanke, Aristotle and the American Indians, London 1959, pp.86–7.

  50. The seminal study on missionaries and the frontier is by Herbert Bolton, in Hispanic American Historical Review, 22 (1917).

  51. Brading, pp.146, 154, 268.

  52. ‘A detailed examination of the provisions indicates how far the king had departed from early policy’: Hanke, Aristotle, p.87.

  53. An autograph account of an interview with the king on 16 Sept. 1588 is given by Acosta in ARSI Epist. Hisp. 143 ff.293–4. On this occasion Acosta raised the question of the difficulties the Jesuits were having with the Inquisition.

  54. BZ 143 f.7. The book was published that year. For an excellent survey of Acosta's thinking, see Anthony Pagden, The Fall of Natural Man, Cambridge 1982, chap.7.

  55. C. R. Boxer, The Church Militant and Iberian Expansion 1440–1770, Baltimore 1978, pp.16–17.

  56. Cited Pagden, The Fall, p.160.

  57. Cf. Góngora, Studies in the Colonial History of Spanish America, Cambridge 1975, p.213; Brading, p.122.

  58. Tellechea, I, 75.

  59. BL Add.28452 f.248. The document is a copy and the text untrustworthy.

  60. Favre, vol.2 f.7.

  61. Ibid. ff.26, 28, 29, 31.

  62. Quiroga to Juan de Zúñiga, 19 June 1574, ibid., vol.19 f.61.

  63. Rodríguez and Rodríguez, p.50, from AGS:E/K 1535 f.109.

  64. Letters of Granvelle to Juan de Zúñiga, Philip's ambassador to Rome. The letters date from Oct. 1573 to Aug. 1574, BZ 62 ff. 148–63.

  65. Gachard, Correspondance, V, 69.

  66. Vázquez to king, 20 May 1574, Madrid, BZ 144 f.11.

  67. Montano to Zayas, Nov. 1573, cited B. Rekers, Benito Arias Montano, Leiden 1972, p.31.

  68. Marañón identifies Quiroga, on no secure basis, as the leader of the Eboli faction in Madrid.

  69. See Bataillon, pp.552, 630. Cf. Lagomarsino, pp.304–15.

  70. Postscript of 27 Aug. 1575, in letter to duke of Francavilla dated 26 June 1575: AGS:E leg.563 f.69.

  71. Furió died in 1592.

  72. See e.g. his ‘Memorial touchant le redressement des affaires des Pays Bas’: AGS:E leg.531 ff.54–5.

  73. Granvelle to Juan de Zúñiga, Naples 22 Mar. 1574, BZ 129 f.150.

  74. Granvelle commented that even his memoranda were written in bad French. Hopperus was a Frisian, so French was his second language.

  75. Gachard, Correspondance, III, 14.

  76. Requesens to Zúñiga, 16 Mar. 1574, IVDJ, 67 f.11.

  77. Parker, Army of Flanders, chap.8.

  78. Requesens to D. Pedro Manuel, 31 Dec. 1574, Favre, vol.30 f.378.

  79. On letter from Vázquez of 19 Dec. 1574, BZ 144 f.38.

  80. ‘Lo que Su Magd manda que se platique’, AGS:E leg.568 f.51.

  81. The four were Quiroga, Luis Manrique, Chinchón, and Andrés Ponce de León.

  82. Requesens to king, Antwerp, 9 Jan. 1575, AGS:E leg 562 f.4.

  83. ‘Los puntos que se comunicaron con Hopperus y lo que el respondió’, 29 Jan. 1575: ibid. leg.568 f.30.

  84. Note by king in 1576, IVDJ, 53 no.88.

  85. The marquises of Aguilar and Los Vélez, 21 Apr. 1576, AGS:E leg.568 f.22.

  86. Ibid., f.31.

  87. ‘Para responder al villete de Hopperus de 12 de abril 1576’, ibid. f.10.

  88. Note by king, Pardo, 23 Sept. 1576, IVDJ, 53, carpeta 5, f.192.

  89. BZ 144 f.114, ‘avisando de la muerte de Hopperus’, 15 Dec. 1576.

  90. 24 Aug. 1576, BL Eg. 1506 f.39v.

  91. Notes by king, 13 May and 4 July 1574, IVDJ, 53 f.87.

  92. King to Vázquez, 18 July 1574, ibid. no.77.

  93. Ibid., carpeta 3, f.65.

  94. Ibid., f.86.

  95. Ibid., f.65.

  96. Madrid, Feb. 1576, ibid., carpeta 5, ff.24–5.

  97. Fortea Pérez, p.122.

  98. IVDJ, 53, carpeta 3, ff.92–5.

  99. Note by king, 14 Sept. 1574, BZ 144 f.15.

  100. San Jerónimo, Memorias, CODOIN, VII, 155.

  101. Cf. Thompson, War and Society, chap. II, 3.

  102. ‘This year and last year have been years of bad harvest throughout Castile’: Pedro de Solchaga to Ju
an de Zúñiga, Madrid, 2 Nov. 1578, Favre, vol.16 f.98.

  103. D. Pedro Tello, corregidor, to Vázquez, July 1577, IVDJ, 21 ff.181, 506.

  104. Philip on a letter from Quiroga, 15 Nov. 1578, BL Eg. 1506 f.93v.

  105. Cf. Kagan, pp.95–8.

  106. ‘Espejo que se propone’, BL Eg. 330 ff.4–20.

  107. Pedro de Ribadeneira to Quiroga, 16 Feb. 1580, Monumenta Historica Societatis Jesu: Ribadeneira, Madrid 1923, I, 22.

  108. Note of 22 Feb. 1576, Madrid, IVDJ, 53, carpeta 5, f.35.

  109. Antonio Pérez to Juan de Zúñiga, 14 Mar. 1577, Favre, vol.19 f.98.

  110. Cited in Brown, p.26.

  111. Note of 15 May 1577, Aranjuez, IVDJ, 53, carpeta 6, f.51.

  112. Quiroga to king, and reply, 24 Aug. 1576, BL Eg. 1506 ff.38–9.

  113. Note by Philip to Quiroga, ibid. f.42.

  114. Requesens to Pedro Manuel, 31 Dec. 1574, Favre, vol.30 f.371.

  115. Requesens to Fresneda, 5 Feb. 1576, quoted Gossart, p.21.

  116. But see his subsequent reaction, noted in Chapter Nine, p.252.

  117. King to Don Juan, El Pardo, 31 Oct. 1576, AGS:E leg.570 f.123.

  118. ‘I decided that you should go alone with Ottavio’: ibid.

  119. Escobedo commented that ‘His Majesty feels that it would be helpful to negotiate with Orange and make concessions’, to Philip, 27 Feb. 1577, CODOIN, L, 319.

  120. Undated note to Quiroga, BL Eg.1506 f.207.

  121. BNM MS.2751 f.156.

  122. Minutes of council, 2. Feb. 1577, AGS:E leg.570 f.1.

  123. King to Vázquez, 6 May 1578, IVDJ, 51 f.178.

  124. Cabrera, II, 483.

  125. Cervantes, Don Quixote, I, xxxii.

  126. Report to Adam von Dietrichstein, 5 June 1578, Madrid, in MZA: RAD, cited by Friedrich Edelmayer, ‘Honor y dinero. Adam de Dietrichstein al servicio de la Casa de Austria’, Studia Historica. Historia Moderna, 11 (1993), p.113 n.123.

  127. Thompson, War and Society, chap. IX, 72.

  128. P. de Törne, ‘Philippe II et Henri de Guise. Le début de leurs relations (1578)’, Revue Historique, 167 (1931), p.324.

  129. ‘Derramado’: Cabrera, I, 491.

  130. On letter of Pérez to king, 23 Apr. 1576, BL Add.28262 ff.128–30.

  131. Ibid., ff.179, 202.

  132. IVDJ, 59 no.225.

  133. On letter of Pérez to king, 8 Feb. 1577, BL Add.28262 f.225.

  134. Only four days before Pérez had suggested to Philip that ‘one cannot let Quiroga in on everything’: letter of 8 Feb., ibid.

  135. On letter of Pérez to king, 12 Feb. 1577, ibid. ff.236–7.

  136. The brilliant study by Marañón, full of splendid conjectures, is not a wholly reliable guide to the Pérez affair. The shorter study by Muro is better on some aspects. The brief account I give is a crude simplification of a complex and tortuous story.

  137. Philip to viceroy of Naples, 24 Jan. 1584 (copy), BCR MS.2174 f.225. The man was Juan del Castillo. Cf. Cabrera, II, 685.

  138. IVDJ, 55 no.102, year 1588.

  139. CODOIN, XV, 435; Marañón, I, 351.

  140. Those who believe the king to be involved can quite properly suggest that he destroyed incriminating papers. The only document apparently implicating the king is that from the Hague, on which Marañón relies fully. If we discount this unverifiable source (it is a copy), no case whatever can be constructed against the king. The note by the king to Rodrigo Vázquez, 4 Jan. 1590, cited by Muro, p.75, in which the king seems to accept responsibility, can be read in different ways. A proper survey of the Pérez–Escobedo affair needs to be done.

  141. Note by king, 1 Apr. 1578, IVDJ, 51 f.161.

  142. Both references are cited from the Farnese archive, by F. Pérez Minguez, Psicología de Felipe II, Madrid 1925, p.91.

  143. Cf. Marañón, I, 364–6.

  144. Ibid., II, 909, doc.88.

  145. Philip to Vázquez, Madrid, 15 Nov. 1578, BZ 144 f.224.

  146. I refer to the major corruption scandals of the Spanish government in the years 1993–5.

  147. On the possibility that she was blind in one eye, see Marañón, I, 177–82; Muro, app.158.

  148. Cf. Muro, pp.28–35.

  149. On this point Marañón (I, 210–12) is convincing.

  150. Cited ibid.

  151. King to Vázquez, 28 July 1578, BZ 142 f.7.

  152. King to Vázquez, 24 Aug. 1578, ibid. f.8.

  153. Muro, app.65; Marañón, I, 281–3.

  154. Marañón, I, 400.

  155. Cited ibid., 403.

  156. Cited ibid., 406.

  157. Muro, p.119.

  158. San Jerónimo, Memorias, CODOIN, VII, 268.

  159. Muro, pp.119–24.

  160. Ibid., App.53.

  161. Ibid., p.129.

  162. Letters in AE:CP,MD vol.236 ff.142, 193.

  163. ‘Very great satisfaction’, cited in Muro, App.54.

  164. King to D. Juan, San Lorenzo, 1 July 1576, Favre, vol.28 f.17.

  165. BNM MS.2751 f.144.

  166. San Jerónimo, Memorias, CODOIN, VII, 229.

  167. Cabrera, II, 484.

  168. A. Danvila y Burguero, Felipe II y la Sucesión de Portugal, Madrid 1956, p.23.

  169. For the various claimants, Merriman, IV, 346–7.

  170. Philip to Moura, 26 Jan. 1579: CODOIN, VI, 78.

  171. Moura to king, 7 Feb. 1579, ibid., 110.

  172. Philip to Osuna and Moura, 14 Apr. 1579, ibid., 350.

  173. Philip to Moura, 5 June 1579, ibid., 419.

  174. Hainault, Artois, Walloon Flanders, Namur, Luxembourg and Limburg.

  175. Philip to Moura, 4 June 1579, CODOIN, VI, 416.

  176. Philip to Osuna and Moura, 30 June 1579, ibid., 519–20.

  177. Philip's letter of summons was dated 12 July 1579: ibid., 555–6.

  178. MZA:RAD, G.140, karton 9, sign. 12a: ‘Relacion de algunas menudencias … de 1579 … para el Illmo Sr el Baron Adan Dietristan’.

  179. Pedro de Solchaga to Juan de Zúñiga, 3 Jan. 1580, Favre, vol.16 f.120.

  180. King to Juan de Zúñiga, 13 Feb. 1580, Favre, vol.6 f.44.

  181. Danvila y Burguero, La Sucesión, p.232.

  182. Philip to Osuna and Moura, 25 Feb. 1580, CODOIN, VI, 661.

  183. There is a good contemporary discussion in HHSA, Spanien, Varia, karton 2, s, f.36.

  184. It is consequently not convincing to attribute the arrest, as Marañón (I, 157) does, to the king's ‘vengeful attitude’.

  185. Feria (D. Lorenzo de Figueroa, second duke of Feria since his father's death in 1572) was eldest son to the English Lady Jane Dormer. His case was a notable scandal. Having pledged himself to the daughter of the duke of Nájera, he then tried to pledge himself ‘all at the same time’ to three other aristocratic daughters: Favre, vol.19 f.83. The king ordered him to marry one of the latter, but he refused on the grounds that his honour was involved: BZ 144 f.130. The instructions for his house arrest are in BZ 142 f.1.

  186. ‘Under arrest by Your Majesty's order in the town of Tordesillas’, Pedro de Solchaga to Juan de Zúñiga, 12 Dec. 1578, Favre, vol.16 f.110. It was not Don Fadrique's first imprisonment. In 1567 he had been thrown into gaol for a related offence.

  187. BNM MS.2751 f.237.

  188. BZ 144 f.242. ‘I couldn't get away from him,’ Mateo Vázquez reported.

  189. Vázquez to king, 30 Nov. 1578, El Pardo, BL Add.28263 f.206.

  190. Pedro de Solchaga to Juan de Zúñiga, 12 July 1578, Favre, vol.16 f.45.

  191. Its members were the cardinal of Toledo, the marquis de Aguilar, D. Antonio de Padilla and D. Juan de Silva.

  192. J. Suárez Inclán, Guerra de anexión en Portugal, 2 vols. Madrid 1897, I, 96.

  193. Alba to king, 9 Sept. 1580, CODOIN, XXXII, 568.

  194. Alba to Zayas, 15 Apr. 1580, ibid., 64.

  195. HHSA, Spanien, Varia, karton 3, b, f.59.

  196. CODOIN, XXXII, 155.

  197. St Teresa and the Jesuit R
ibadeneira, quoted in Bouza, ‘Portugal’, p.96.

  198. This is the figure for which the food suppliers catered. The actual size of the army varies in the accounts.

  199. CODOIN, VII, 295.

  200. Jean Baptiste de Tassis to Juan de Zúñiga, Badajoz, 24 June 1580, Favre, vol.21 f.262.

  201. Muster of April 1580, CODOIN, XXXII, 27–9. Alba disliked Italian soldiers. ‘Italians, for the love of God,’ he wrote, ‘Your Majesty must not bring any more, it's money wasted; but as for Germans, bring another 5,000’: ibid. p.15.

  202. King to marquis of Alcañizes, ambassador in Rome, Badajoz, 10 July 1580: Favre, vol.29 f.103.

  203. Juan de Cardona to Juan de Zúñiga, Setubal, 2 Aug. 1580, Favre, vol.21 f.314.

  204. This and other details of the Portuguese campaign can be found in the excellent journal by a German noble officer, the Tagebuch des Erich Lassota von Steblau, printed in García Mercadal, I, 1253–92.

  205. Alba to king, 28 Aug. 1580, CODOIN, XXXII, 482.

  206. King to Alba, Badajoz, 29 Aug. 1580, BL Add.28357 f.356.

  207. Favre, vol.21 f.359.

  208. President Pazos to Vázquez, 19 Sept. 1580, IVDJ, 21 f.803.

  209. J.B. de Tassis to Juan de Zúñiga, 14 Oct. 1580, Favre, vol.21 f.413.

  210. Cabrera, II, 616.

  211. King to Juan de Zúñiga, 16 Nov. 1580, BL Add.28357 f.359. The codicil to his will is dated 4 Dec. Cf. CODOIN, VII, 348.

  212. Venetian ambassador Zane, Alberi, ser. I, vol.5, p.363.

  213. Cabrera, IV, 198: ‘he had no wish to repeat the state of marriage’.

  214. Asistente of Seville, count of Villar, to Vázquez, 3 Aug. 1580, IVDJ, 21 f.85. The main culprits were executed. See also Adas de las Cortes, XII, 183.

  215. King to Alba, from Tomar, 10 and 30 Apr. 1581: BL Add.28357 ff.421, 426. See the untrue claim in Merriman, IV, 397 that ‘after the fighting had finished the king had no more use for him’.

  216. Ossorio, p.518.

  217. Cabrera, II, 687.

  218. There is a splendid discussion of her death in Eire, pp.369–510.

  219. Luis Enríquez de Cabrera y Mendoza, duke of Medina de Rioseco.

  220. BNM MS.2751 f.227.

  7. The World of Philip II

  1. To his daughters, Lisbon, Feb. 1582, Bouza, Cartas, p.62.

  2. A notable exception was the Mendoza family. For a perspective on the nobles as a whole, Gil Fernández, pp.299–327.

  3. Ambassador Khevenhüller, cited Edelmayer, p.47.