The Imperial Cruise

by James Bradley

  General Jake Smith: Joseph L. Schott, The Ordeal of Samar (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1964), 76.

  1 Actual quote reads: “… we come not to make war upon the people of the Philippines nor upon any party or faction among them, but to protect them in their homes, in their employments, and in their personal and religious rights.” McKinley’s Message to the Sec­retary of War at the Cession of War, July 13, 1898, as seen in A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, ed. James Daniel Richardson (Bureau of National Literature & Art, 1907), 344.

  2 Robert E. Austill to Herbert Welsh, June 17, 1902, Herbert Welsh Collection, Correspondence, Box A, Historical Society of Pennsylvania.

  3 Walter L. Williams, “United States Indian Policy and the Debate over Philippine Annexation: Implications for the Origins of American Imperialism,” The Journal of American History 66, no. 4 (March 1980), 810–31.

  4 Ibid.

  5 Ibid.

  6 Eric T. L. Love, Race Over Empire: Racism and U.S. Imperialism, 1865–1900 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 188.

  7 TR, The Winning of the West, 4:200.

  8 Matthew Frye Jacobson, Barbarian Virtues: The United States Encounters Foreign Peoples at Home and Abroad, 1876–1917 (New York: Hill & Wang, 2000), 228.

  9 Stuart Creighton Miller, Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982), 15.

  10 Kristin L. Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), 160.

  11 Rudyard Kipling, Complete Verse: Definitive Edition (New York: Anchor Books, 1940), 321–23.

  12 James Blount, American Occupation of the Philippines, 1898–1912 (New York: Knickerbocker Press, 1913), 117.

  13 It came to light only a year and half later on February 26, 1900, after the Senate passed a resolution demanding it from the Executive Branch.

  14 Moorfield Storey and Julian Codman, Secretary Root’s Record “Marked Severities” in Philippine Warfare: An Analysis of the Law and Facts bearing on the Action & Utterances of President Roosevelt and Secretary Root (Boston: Geo. H. Ellis Co., 1902), 31.

  15 Miller, Benevolent Assimilation, 61.

  16 Blount, American Occupation, 187. See General Hughes’s ­testimony before Senate Committee, 1900, Senate Document 331, p. 508.

  17 Stanley Karnow, In Our Image (New York: Ballantine Books, 1989), 140.

  18 Miller, Benevolent Assimilation, 68–69.

  19 Ibid., 30.

  20 George Dewey, Autobiography of George Dewey: Admiral of the Navy. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 284.

  21 Letters of Henry Adams, 1892–1918, ed. Worthington Chauncey Ford (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1938), 208.

  22 Richard W. Welch Jr., “American Atrocities in the Philippines: The Indictment and the Response,” Pacific Historical Review 43 (May 1974), 9.

  23 Ibid., 8.

  24 Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood, 187.

  25 MacArthur had been awarded the Medal of Honor for charging Confederate forces in 1863 when he was nineteen years old. Later he chased Geronimo through New Mexico. He sailed to the Philippines in 1898, fought in the initial battles, and would serve as Military Governor of the Philippines from 1899 to 1901. His son Douglas would help lead America’s Pacific operations in World War II and Korea.

  26 Henry H. Graff, American Imperialism and the Philippine Insurrection, Testimony of the Times: Selections from Congressional Hearings (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1969), 136.

  27 Miller, Benevolent Assimilation, 88.

  28 Ibid., 94.

  29 Richard Drinnon, Facing West: The Metaphysics of Indian-Hating and Empire-Building (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997), 320.

  30 Glenn Anthony May, Battle for Batangas: A Philippine Province at War (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), 147, 149.

  31 Karnow, In Our Image, 154.

  32 TR, Public papers of Theodore Roosevelt, Governor, 1899[–1900], vol. 2 (Albany, NY: Brandow Printing Company, 1899), 293–307.

  33 Miller, Benevolent Assimilation, 179.

  34 Jacobson, Barbarian Virtues, 245.

  35 Storey and Codman, Secretary Root’s Record, 22.

  36 Miller, Benevolent Assimilation, 189.

  37 TR, The Strenuous Life (New York: The Century Co., 1905), 28.

  38 Leon Wolff, Little Brown Brother: America’s Forgotten Bid for Empire Which Cost 250,000 Lives (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1960), 294.

  39 Miller, Benevolent Assimilation, 100.

  40 Ibid., 101.

  41 Storey and Codman, Secretary Root’s Record, 78.

  42 Judith Icke Anderson, William Howard Taft: An Intimate History (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1981), 174.

  43 Ibid., 169.

  44 Ibid., 69.

  45 Oscar Alfonso, Theodore Roosevelt and the Philippines (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1970), 44.

  46 John Morgan Gates, Schoolbooks and Krags: The United States Army in the Philippines, 1898–1902 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1973), 148.

  47 Miller, Benevolent Assimilation, 102.

  48 Hermann Hagedorn, ed., Works of Theodore Roosevelt (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1925), 16:537–60.

  49 Robert E. Austill to Herbert Welsh, June 17, 1902, Correspondence, Box A, Herbert Welsh Collection, Historical Society of Pennsylvania.

  50 Miller, Benevolent Assimilation, 150.

  51 Wolff, Little Brown Brother, 346.

  52 Miller, Benevolent Assimilation, 171.

  53 Ibid., 174.

  54 Blount, American Occupation, 373.

  55 Anderson, William Howard Taft, 76.

  56 Karnow, In Our Image, 230.

  57 Glenn Anthony May, Social Engineering in the Philippines: The Aims, Execution, and Impact of American Colonial Policy, 1900–1913 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980), 93.

  58 Karnow, In Our Image, 205.

  59 Ibid.

  60 Ibid., 191.

  61 Ibid.

  62 Rep. Thomas J. Selby, CR 35, pt. 1, January 22, 1902, 881.

  63 Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood, 184.

  64 TR, Message to Congress, December 3, 1901, Source: UCSB American Presidency Project, http://www.polsci.ucsb.edu/projects/presproject/idgrant/site/state.html.

  65 Blount, American Occupation, 414.

  66 New York Times, January 15, 1902.

  67 Alfonso, Theodore Roosevelt and the Philippines, 100.

  68 Kathleen Dalton, Theodore Roosevelt: A Strenuous Life (New York: Vintage Books, 2004), 228.

  69 Graff, American Imperialism and the Philippine Insurrection, 92.

  70 Miller, Benevolent Assimilation, 213.

  71 Graff, American Imperialism and the Philippine Insurrection, 95.

  72 Miller, Benevolent Assimilation, 213.

  73 Schott, The Ordeal of Samar, 165.

  74 Graff, American Imperialism and the Philippine Insurrection, 65.

  75 U.S. Congressional record, 57th Cong, 1st sess, XXXV, part 5, 4673.

  76 “… horror of the water torture.” Welch, American Atrocities in the Philippines, 1.

  77 Schott, The Order of Samar, 244–45.

  78 Speech of Roosevelt at Arlington Cemetery, May 30, 1902, TR Papers, Series 5A. Speeches, B1. B.2.

  79 Speech given by Theodore Roosevelt at Arlington National Cemetery, May 30, 1902, Theodore Roosevelt Papers, Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Series 5A, Speeches and Executive Orders, 1899–1918.

  80 Karnow, In Our Image, 194–95.

  81 Ibid., 194.

  82 Robert W. Rydell, All the World’s a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876–1916 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 162.

  83 Ibid.

  84 Sharra L. Vostral, “Imperialism on Display: The Philippine Exhibition at the 1904 World’s Fair,” Gatew
ay Heritage 13:4 (1993), 19.

  85 Beverly K. Grindstaff, “Creating Identity: Exhibiting the Philippines at the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition,” National Identities, vol. 1, no. 3, 1999.

  86 Rydell, All the World’s a Fair, 177.

  87 Tony Smith, America’s Mission: The United States and the Worldwide Struggle for Democracy in the Twentieth Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 44.

  88 Seth M. Scheiner, “President Theodore Roosevelt and the Negro, 1901–1908,” The Journal of Negro History, vol. 47, no. 3 (July 1962), 169–82.

  89 Rydell, All the World’s a Fair, 176.

  CHAPTER 5: HAOLES

  Caption:

  John Stevens: Rich Budnick, Stolen Kingdom: An American Conspiracy (Honolulu: Aloha Press, 1992), 129.

  1 TR, American Ideals (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1920), 280.

  2 Stacy A. Cordery, Alice: Alice Roosevelt Longworth, from White House Princess to Washington Power Broker (New York: Viking, 2007), 117.

  3 Des Moines Chronicle, August 1, 1905.

  4 Alice Roosevelt Longworth, Crowded Hours (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1933), 69.

  5 Des Moines Chronicle, July 31, 1905.

  6 Stephen Hess, “Big Bill Taft,” American Heritage 17, no. 6 (October 1966), 6–32.

  7 Judith Icke Anderson, William Howard Taft: An Intimate History (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1981), 89.

  8 Ibid., 86.

  9 Ibid., 86, 89.

  10 Henry F. Pringle, The Life and Times of William Howard Taft (Norwalk, CT: Easton Press, 1986), 272.

  11 Butt, Letters, January 5, 1909, as cited in Michael L. Bromley, William Howard Taft and the First Motoring Presidency, 1909–1913 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2003), 42.

  12 Hess, “Big Bill Taft.

  13 Anderson, William Howard Taft, 55.

  14 Hess, “Big Bill Taft.”

  15 “… to be president of the United States,” ibid., 48–49; “… brilliant parties and meeting all manner of charming people,” Helen Herron Taft, Recollection of Full Years (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1914), 6; “… that she fantasized becoming first lady herself… ‘vowed to marry a man destined to be president of the United States,’ ” Philip Weeks, Buckeye Presidents: Ohioans in the White House (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2003), 215.

  16 Ibid., 53.

  17 Ibid., 95.

  18 “… of work I wished him to do,” ibid., 58; “rather overwhelming” and “an awful groove,” Anderson, William Howard Taft, 58; interruption… in our peaceful existence” and “very glad because it gave Mr. Taft an opportunity for exactly the kind of work I wished him to do,” Carl Sferrazza Anthony, Nellie Taft: The Unconventional First Lady of the Ragtime Era (New York: HarperCollins, 2005), 95.

  19 Anderson, William Howard Taft, 66.

  20 Taft, Recollections of Full Years, 32.

  21 Weeks, Buckeye Presidents, 218.

  22 Ibid.

  23 Pringle, William Howard Taft, 167.

  24 Lewis L. Gould, American First Ladies: Their Lives and Their Legacy (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2001), 218.

  25 Taft to H. C. Hollister, September 21, 1903, cited in Pringle, William Howard Taft, 236.

  26 Longworth, Crowded Hours, 76.

  27 Pacific Commercial Advertiser, July 15, 1905.

  28 Ibid.

  29 Ibid.

  30 Ibid.

  31 Ibid.

  32 Longworth, Crowded Hours, 77.

  33 Pacific Commercial Advertiser, July 15, 1905.

  34 Cordery, Alice, 117–18.

  35 Pacific Commercial Advertiser, July 15, 1905.

  36 David E. Stannard, Before the Horror: The Population of Hawai ‘i on the Eve of Western Contact (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989), 73.

  37 Ibid., 61.

  38 Ibid., 70.

  39 Stannard, Before the Horror, 73.

  40 O. A. Bushnell, The Gifts of Civilization: Germs and Genocide in Hawaii (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993), 16.

  41 Linda McKee, “Mad Jack and the Missionaries,” American Heritage (April 1971), 33.

  42 Rufus Anderson, The Hawaiian Islands: Their Progress and Condition Under Missionary Labors (Boston: Gould & Lincoln, 1864), 276.

  43 Amy S. Greenberg, Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 248.

  44 Eric T. L. Love, Race Over Empire: Racism and U.S. Imperialism, 1865–1900 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 86.

  45 Stephen Kinzer, Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq (New York: Henry Holt, 2006), 12.

  46 John R. Proctor, “Hawaii and the Changing Front of the World,” Forum 24 (September 1897), 34–35.

  47 Jacob Adler, Clause Spreckels: The Sugar King in Hawaii (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1966), 100.

  48 Ibid., 61.

  49 Blount Report, U. S. House of Representatives, 53rd Congress, 3rd Session, Ex. Doc. 1, Part 1, Appendix II, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1894: Affairs in Hawaii (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1895). Digital copy available at http://hdl.handle.net/10524/984.

  50 Blain to Harrison, August 10, 1891, Kuykendall, vol. III, 486, as quoted in Rich Budnick, Stolen Kingdom: An American Conspiracy (Oahu, HI: Aloha Press, 1992), 87.

  51 Kinzer, Overthrow, 23.

  52 Ibid., 22.

  53 Budnick, Stolen Kingdom, 111.

  54 Cornwell Statements, April 24, 1893, Blount Report, 495.

  55 Budnick, Stolen Kingdom, 129.

  56 Ibid., 132.

  57 Report of U.S. Special Commissioner James H. Blount to Secretary of State Walter Q. Gresham Concerning the Hawaiian Kingdom Investigation, www.hawaiiankingdom.or/blounts-report.html. Accessed September 22, 2009.

  58 The January 20 inaugurations did not go into effect until 1937.

  59 Thomas J. Osborne, Annexation Hawaii: Fighting American Imperialism (Waimanalo, HI: Island Style Press, 1998), 4.

  60 Ibid., 33.

  61 Ibid., 31.

  62 Budnick, Stolen Kingdom, 152.

  63 Ibid., 155.

  64 Love, Race Over Empire, 119.

  65 Sanford Dole to John Burgess, December 18, 1894, quoted in Henry Miller Madden, “Letters of Sanford B. Dole and John W. Burgess,” The Pacific Historical Review (March 1936), 75.

  66 Walter A. McDougall, Let the Sea Make a Noise: A History of the North Pacific from Magellan to MacArthur (New York: HarperCollins, 1993), 391.

  67 Budnick, Stolen Kingdom, 170.

  68 McDougall, Let the Sea Make a Noise, 392.

  69 Budnick, Stolen, 172; Osborne, Annexation Hawaii, 34.

  70 Thomas G. Dyer, Theodore Roosevelt and the Idea of Race (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1960), 141.

  71 Osborne, Annexation Hawaii, 129.

  72 Ibid., 134.

  73 Love, Race Over Empire, 157.

  74 Charles Callan Tansill, The Foreign Policy of Thomas F. Bayard, 1885–1891 (New York: Fordham University Press, 1940), 409.

  75 Howard Teichmann, Alice: The Life and Times of Alice Roosevelt Longworth (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1979), 42; “It was considered just a little indelicate,” Longworth, Crowded Hours, 77.

  76 Pacific Commercial Advertiser, July 15, 1905.

  77 Ibid.

  78 Longworth, Crowded Hours, 78.

  CHAPTER 6: HONORARY ARYANS

  Captions:

  Matthew Perry: Peter Booth Wiley, Yankees in the Land of the Gods: Commodore Perry and the Opening of Japan (New York: Penguin Books, 1990), 490.

  Emperor Gojong and son: Yur-Bok Lee and Wayne Patterson, eds., Korean-American Relations, 1866–1997 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999), 45; TR to Sternberg, August 8, 1900, in Elting Morison and John Blum, eds., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 8 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1951–54), 2:1394.

  1 Okakura Kakuzo, The Book of Tea (New York: Fox Duffield & Co., 1906), 7.


  2 Alice Roosevelt Longworth, Crowded Hours (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1933), 78.

  3 Ibid.

  4 Japan Weekly Mail, July 29, 1905.

  5 New York Times, July 27, 1905.

  6 Lloyd C. Griscom, Diplomatically Speaking (New York: Literary Guild of America, 1940), 258.

  7 Tokyo Asahi Shimbun, July 25, 1905.

  8 Peter Booth Wiley, Yankees in the Land of the Gods, 490.

  9 Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi, Anti-foreignism and Western Learning in Early-modern Japan: The New Theses [sic] of 1825 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 90.

  10 Amy S. Greenberg, Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 261.

  11 U.S. Congress. Senate, Documents relative to the Empire of Japan, 32nd Congress, 1st sess, 1852. Sen. Ex. Doc. 59.

  12 Thomas Hart Benton, “America’s Pathway to the Orient,” in Manifest Destiny and the Imperialism Question, Charles L. Sanford, ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974), 44.

  13 Arthur Walworth, Black Ships off Japan: The Story of Commodore Perry’s Expedition (New York: Knopf, 1946), 39.

  14 William Neumann, America Encounters Japan: From Perry to Mac-Arthur (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963), 30.

  15 Senate, Documents relative to the Empire of Japan, Sen. Ex. Doc. 59.

  16 Michael Frederick Rollin, The Divine Invasion: Manifest Destiny and the Westernization of Japanese Nationalism in the Late Tokugawa and Meiji Periods, 1853–1912 (master’s thesis, University of Texas at San Antonio, 2002), 33.

  17 Ibid., 34.

  18 Wiley, Yankees in the Land of the Gods, 81.

  19 Rollin, The Divine Invasion, 53.

  20 Walter A. McDougall, Let the Sea Make a Noise (New York: HarperCollins, 1993), 276.

  21 Lee Yong-ju, “The Path from a Theory of Civilization to Escape of Asia: Yukichi Fukuzawa’s Perception of Asia and ‘Mission to Civilize,’ ” Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies 3, no. 2 (2003), 146.

  22 John Dower, Japan in War and Peace: Selected Essays (London: HarperCollins/Hammersmith, 1995), 2.

  23 Foster Rhea Dulles, Yankees and Samurai: America’s Role in the Emergence of Modern Japan, 1791–1900 (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), 201.

  24 McDougall, Let the Sea Make a Noise, 354.