To the Edges of the Earth

by Edward J. Larson

  Cook, Edith, 153

  Cook, Frederick: Antarctic work of, 54, 102–4, 131; Denali expeditions of, 95, 103, 117–18, 274, 284n7; North Pole expedition of, 22–23, 28, 117–18, 145, 151–56, 259–60, 263, 272–73; public image of, 153, 156, 273–76; versus Peary, 259–60, 272–78, 282; with Peary, 25, 28, 42, 102–3

  Cook, James, xvi, 51–52

  Copenhagen, Denmark, 259, 272–73

  Cornell University, 104, 146, 198

  Cotopaxi, 88

  Cowes Week, 121

  crevasses, 142, 173, 175–82, 234, 241–44, 271, 311n43

  Crocker Land, 113, 151

  Croker, George, 100, 113

  Crowley, Aleister, 219

  Croz, Michel, 84–85, 87

  Daily Mail (London), 266

  Darjeeling, India, 96, 216

  Darwin, Charles, 67–68

  David, Cara, 68, 127, 270, 297n26

  David, T. W. Edgeworth, 263, 282; as geologist, 64, 137–38; as glaciologist, 64, 129–30, 166; character of, 68–70, 127–28, 137–38, 164–67, 170–71, 184, 240–46, 270–71, 278–80, 290n51; joins Nimrod Expedition, 50–51, 64–69, 124–28; Mawson and, 69–70, 73, 165, 170, 184, 206, 269–72; Mount Erebus climb of, 132–36; northern sledge journey of, 141, 143, 163–74, 183–85, 213–14, 236–46

  Davis, John King, 245

  Day, Bernard, 168

  De Filippi, Filippo, 216–37, 261–62, 266

  De Long, George, 10

  Dedrick, Thomas, 34–39, 41–43

  Delta Kappa Epsilon, 116

  Denali (mountain), 95, 103, 117–18, 274, 383–84n7

  Denmark, 154, 272–73, 275, 277

  Detroit Free Press, 275

  Devon Island, 259

  Dickens, Charles, xvi, 85

  dip, compass needle, 185

  Discovery (ship), 55

  Discovery Expedition: Antarctic activities of, 51–64, 130, 139, 163–67, 186; planning for, 55, 59–61, 65–66; Shackleton and, 45, 60–64, 123–24, 132–34, 178, 189

  dogs: advantages of for sledging, 141–42; Peary’s use of, 28–29, 36–44, 105–14, 141, 150, 157–62, 195–98, 255–56; Peary’s view of, 34, 209, 281; use of by British, 7, 61–63; use of for food, 16–21, 29, 37, 62–63, 110, 112, 195, 285n42; use of in Antarctic, 61–63, 123–24, 268; use of in Arctic, xix, 7, 11, 12–21, 150–52, 192, 198–208, 272–73

  Douglas, Francis, 83–85

  Doyle, Arthur Conan, xvii, 280

  Dras Valley, 222–23

  Dreadnought (ship), 121

  Dry Valley, 164–65, 170–71, 239

  Drygalski Glacier, 239

  Drygalski Ice Tongue, 172–74, 183, 240, 243–45

  Duke of the Abruzzi: Africa and, 90–92, 266, 282; Arctic expedition of, xvi, 12–21, 30, 40, 45–46, 74, 101, 123, 141, 149, 281, 285nn48–50; celebrity status of, xvi, 3, 21, 74–75, 92–95; character of, 12–14, 20, 75, 93, 95, 266, 279; Karakoram expedition of, 95–96, 143–44, 215–16, 218–37, 260–62, 280; Katherine Elkins and, 1–3, 94, 278; mountaineering by, xx, 74–75, 82, 86–88, 266, 292–93n45; naval service of, 93–95, 278; Peary and, 108–9, 266, 277–78

  Eagle Island, 45, 146, 206, 263, 276–77, 279, 282

  East Antarctic Ice Sheet, 163, 179, 163–67, 243. See also Great Ice Plateau; Polar Plateau

  Eckenstein, Oscar, 219–20

  Ecuador, 88

  Edward VII, xv, 80, 93, 120–22, 219, 263

  Edward VII Land. See King Edward VII Land

  Edward VIII, 120

  Egingwah, 205, 211–12

  Elephant Island, 269

  Elkins, Katherine, 1–3, 94, 219, 278

  Ellesmere Island, 6–9, 36–43, 46, 99, 102, 106, 143, 148, 151, 259; exploration of, 113–14, 158

  Encyclopedia Britannica, 221

  Endurance (ship), 269

  England, 120–22, 172, 209, 267, 276. See also Britain

  Eratosthenes, 4

  Erebus (ship), 52

  Erik (ship), 42, 146, 150–54, 156

  Eskimo, as Peary’s term for Inuit, xx, 24, 29, 33, 104, 192

  Etah, Greenland, 39–43, 117, 149–53, 156, 194, 259–60

  Etukishuk, 151, 259–60

  Evening Post (New York), 2

  Exploration, Age of, xvi, 144

  Explorer’s Club (New York), 103, 274–75

  farthest north, 9–10, 15–17, 44, 74, 108–11, 157

  farthest south, 48, 52, 59–61, 166, 178, 190

  Fenoillet, Alexis, 15, 20

  Ferrar, Hartley, 66–67

  Fort Conger, 9–10, 35–38, 41, 99, 104, 149

  Fort Portal, Uganda, 91

  Foundation for the Promotion of the Art of Navigation, 213

  Fram (ship), 11–12, 19, 30, 36, 38, 100, 273

  France, 51, 56, 99, 278

  Franke, Rudolph, 117, 151–54, 156

  Frankenstein (book), xvii, 5, 77

  Franklin, John, 4, 267

  Franklin searches, 4, 6–7, 82

  Franz Joseph Land, 12–21, 101

  Frobisher, Martin, 4

  frostbite, 14, 16, 104, 143, 198, 240, 245, 248, 266

  Funafuti Islands, 67–69, 127

  Furious Fifties, 51, 126–27

  Gagarin, Yuri, 281

  Gasherbrum massif, 231, 233

  geography, study of, 53–56, 65, 88–89, 101–2

  geology, science of, 50, 65–71, 223; Antarctic research in, 132, 137, 164–65, 184

  George V, 121, 163

  Gerlache, Adrian de, 55, 280

  Germany, 55, 87, 99

  Giordano, Felice, 83

  glaciers, 62, 90–92, 137, 166, 179–83, 218–19, 224–48, 281

  Glasgow, Scotland, 74, 95

  Glenn, John, 281

  Godwin-Austin, Henry, 219

  Godwin-Austin Glacier, 219, 226–28, 230–32

  Goodsell, John, 147, 151, 159, 161, 194–98, 258

  Great Ice Barrier, 52, 58–59, 61, 129–30, 166. See also Ross Ice Shelf

  Great Ice Plateau, 179, 192–205, 214. See also Polar Plateau

  Great Rift Valley, 65

  Great Trigonometrical Survey, 96, 217–19

  Greely, Adolphus, 9–11, 35, 38, 103, 273

  Greely Expedition (1881–84), 19, 35, 39–41

  Greenland, 38–43, 99, 104–6, 112, 117, 149–52, 272, 281; expeditions to, 6–10, 13–14, 22–31, 88, 154–55, 288n47

  Gregory, J. W., 65–66

  Grinnell Land, 45

  Grizi (pony), 178, 246, 250, 252

  Hadow, Douglas, 84–85

  Hampton, Benjamin, 275

  Hampton’s Magazine, 148, 211

  Hanson, Nicolai, 58

  Harmsworth, Alfred, 34–35

  Harper and Brothers, 209

  Harrow School, 86

  Harvard College, 33, 86

  Heart of the Antarctic, In the (book), 266

  Henson, Matthew: 1898–92 expedition work of, 34–45; 1905–07 expedition work of, 104–11, 114–15; 1908–09 expedition work of, 97, 150–52, 159–62, 194–214, 256–60; Greenland expeditions work of, 25, 28–29; Inuit and, 159; relationship with Peary of, 25, 97, 146–49, 198–200, 210–12, 256–57, 306n58, 306n62, 308n90

  Herbert, Wally, 37, 107, 110, 213, 255

  Hillary, Edmund, 280

  Himalaya Mountains: exploration of, 96, 102, 146; mountaineering in, xv, 3, 75, 88, 95–96, 143–44, 234, 280. See also Karakoram Mountains

  Home of the Blizzard, The (book), 271

  Hooker, Joseph, 54

  Hörnli Ridge, 83–84

  Howchin, Walter, 68–69

  Hubbard Medal, 115

  Hudson, Charles, 83–85

  Hudson, Henry, 4

  hunting, big game, 27, 30, 152, 158, 171

  Hurst, William Randolph, 135

  Hut Point, xix, 130–31, 139–43, 247, 253–54, 269

  ice: fascination with, xvi, 5, 76–77, 127, 279

  ice ages, 64–65, 69, 73, 137

  ice pack, 40, 43, 51–52

  ice sheet, 1
63, 281. See also East Antarctic Ice Shelf

  icebergs, 128–29

  igloos: use of, 34, 106–7, 112, 161, 192, 195, 201–3, 210, 256–58

  Illustrated London News, 86

  Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition (1914–16), 268–69

  imperialism, 89–92, 102, 121

  Independence Bay, 25–27, 29, 41

  India, 96, 217–26, 261

  Indian Harbor, Labrador, 274

  Indus River, 217, 222–23

  industrialization, 75, 281

  International Geographical Congresses, 26, 54, 98, 101, 112, 147

  Inuit, 23, 272–76; American Museum of Natural History and, 31; Peary’s 1898–1902 expedition and, 33–45; Peary’s 1905–06 expedition and, 104–14; Peary’s 1908–09 expedition and, xx, 105, 157–62, 191–214, 257–59; Peary’s Greenland expeditions and, 24, 29; Peary’s view of 35, 104–5, 109, 146–55, 158–59, 301n55

  Inukitosoq, 258–59

  Ireland, 49, 282

  Isserman, Maurice, 231

  Italian Alpine Club, 83, 215, 266

  Italian Geographical Society, 265

  Italy, 12–21, 81–85, 90–95, 101, 111, 215–16, 229, 260, 278

  Jackson, Frederick, 12

  Jacot-Guillarmot, Jules, 219

  Jammu and Kashmir, 220, 222. See also Kashmir

  Jane Eyre (book), xvii

  Jeannette (ship), 10, 11, 56, 272–73

  Jesup, Morris K., 32–34, 46, 100–101, 115–16, 149, 210

  Johansen, Hjalmar, 11–12

  K2 (mountain), xx, 96, 116, 216–19, 221, 225–32, 262, 280; Duke of the Abruzzi’s expedition to, 215, 226–37

  Kabru (mountain), 216

  Kane, Elisha Kent, 25, 209

  Karakoram Mountains, 95–96, 145, 216–19, 222–37, 260–61, 280–81

  Kashmir, 217–23, 260–62

  kayaks: use of, 11–12, 15–21

  King Edward VII Land, 124

  Klondike, 165

  Kudlooktoo, 258–59

  Labrador, 262, 266, 274

  Lady Franklin Bay Expedition (1881–84). See Greely Expedition

  Lake Tanganyika, 89

  Lake Victoria, 89–91

  Lapland, 23

  Larsen Glacier, 174, 183, 241

  Lauder, Harry, 168

  “Lead, Kindly Light” (hymn), 169, 246

  leads, sea-ice, 8, 16–21, 40, 199–208, 257–59; Peary halted by, 44, 106–8, 193–96

  Lee, Hugh, 29

  lecturing, public, 27–28, 48–51, 63, 209, 276–77

  Leopold II, 90

  Libya, 278

  Liguria (ship), 21

  Lincoln Sea, 156

  Lindbergh, Charles, 281

  Lion Ridge, 83–84

  Livingstone, David, xvi, 56, 90, 272

  Lockwood, James, 9–10, 39

  London, 56, 65, 80, 122; explorers’ reception in, 26, 54, 263

  London, Jack, 3

  London Daily News, xviii, 273

  longitude, measurement of, 23, 206–7

  Longstaff, Llewellyn W., 60–61

  Luigi Amedeo, Prince. See Duke of the Abruzzi

  Lyttelton, New Zealand, 122, 125–27

  Mackay, Forbes, 133, 138, 254; northern sledge journey work of, 143, 164–67, 183–85, 214, 238–46

  MacMillan, Donald, 147, 159, 161, 195–98, 258

  magnetic observations, 165–66, 185

  magnetic poles, 165–67. See also south magnetic pole

  magnetism. See terrestrial magnetism

  Maigaard, Christian, 23–24

  Maine, 45, 104, 146, 263, 276–77

  Mallory, George, 236

  Manfred (epic poem), 78

  manliness, conceptions of, 32, 85–87, 147–48, 279, 299n11

  Marble Point, 239

  Markham, Albert H., 7–8, 26, 40, 43, 267

  Markham, Clements R., 6–9, 55

  Marsdon, George, 138

  Marseilles, France, 215, 262

  Marshall, Eric, 133–35, 141–43; religious views of, 138, 181; Shackleton and, 138, 142, 179, 206, 297n34; southern sledge journey work of, 175–82, 186–90, 246–54

  Marvin, Ross: 1905–06 expedition work of, 104–5; 1908–09 expedition work of, 146, 153, 159, 161, 194–205, 258–59

  Mathews, Shailer, 276

  Matterhorn, 3, 12, 78, 81–88, 116, 226

  Mawson, Douglas, xvi, 227, 282; character of, 58, 70–72, 241, 271, 278, 280; geological work of, 69–73, 137–38; Nimrod Expedition and, 50–51, 64, 124–25, 133–35, 254, 263, 269–70; northern sledge journey work of, 141, 143, 164–74, 183–85, 206, 213–14, 238–46, 267

  McKinley, William, 32, 98

  McMurdo Sound, 130–31, 140, 164–65

  Meditations (book), 70

  Melbourne, Australia, 47–49, 53, 59

  Melbourne Observatory, 58

  Melville, George, 273–75

  merchant marine, 60

  Messines, Battle of, 272

  meteorites, recovered by Peary, 29–32

  meteorology, study of, 55, 58, 73, 128

  Mexico, 69

  Mill, Hugh Robert, 123

  Minik (or Mene), 154–55

  Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa (book), 56

  Mont Blanc, 75–83, 87, 216, 226

  Monte Rosa, 86–87

  Montgomerie, Thomas, 217

  Monzino, Guido, 146

  Moore, Charles, 32

  Morgan, Pierpont, 100

  motion pictures, 144, 262

  Mount Erebus, xix, 52, 131–36, 267

  Mount Everest, 218, 236, 280

  Mount Harmukh, 217

  Mount Hope, 179

  Mount Illampu, 95

  Mount Kangchenjunga, 75, 96

  Mount Kenya, 65

  Mount Larsen, 174, 183, 241

  Mount Lindesay, 53

  Mount Saint Elias, 3, 12–13, 75, 88, 91, 93, 230

  Mount Stanley, 92

  Mount Terror, 52

  Mount Vernon, Virginia, 94

  mountaineering, xvi–xvii, 3, 75–96; Antarctic, 132–36; criticized, 85–86; elitist aspects of, 74–75, 78–81, 85–87, 291n17; guided, 76, 79–85, 91–92, 219, 229; Himalayan, 95–96, 217–19; popularization of, 80–81, 86–88

  Mountains of the Moon, 89–90. See also Ruwenzori Range

  Mumbai, India, 216, 220, 262

  Mummery, Albert, 86–87

  Murchison, Rodney, 89

  Muslim, 220–22, 224

  Mussolini, Benito, 278

  Mylius-Erichsen, Ludvig, 154

  Nansen, Fridtjof, 53, 121–24, 182, 209, 267, 270, 281; Arctic exploration by, 10–14, 16–20, 30, 34, 45; Peary and, 24–26, 33, 40, 44, 46, 105–9, 286n6

  Nansen Sound, 151

  Nares, George, 6–9, 43, 105, 273–74, 280

  Nares Expedition. See British Arctic Exploration of 1875–76

  Nares Strait, 104, 156, 259

  Nathorst, Alfred, 30

  Nation (London), 267

  National Geographic Society, 45–46, 115, 213, 274–77

  National Weather Service (United States), 9

  nationalism: American, 33, 45–46, 98–99, 115–16, 214, 258, 312n88; British, 49–50, 185, 189, 267; Italian, 14, 17, 92

  Natural History Museum, 65

  Negrotto, Federico, 215, 227, 233

  Nepal, 96, 218

  Nevado Huasearán (mountain), 95

  New Hebrides Islands, 71–72

  New South Wales, Australia, 64, 67, 70

  New York City, 29–30, 103–4, 120, 145–46; explorers’ reception in, 45, 93–95, 97, 114–15, 153, 263

  New York Evening Globe, 265

  New York Herald, 56, 90, 277; Cook and, 118, 153, 260, 272–74

  New York Times, xv, 2, 20–21, 46, 93; Peary and, 118, 213, 260–63, 265, 274–77

  New York World, 154

  New Zealand, 127–28, 243, 253–54, 270; Antarctic expeditions stopping at, 59, 122, 125–26, 247, 263, 266–67

  Newfoundland, 104
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  Newnes, George, 56–57

  newspapers: exploration coverage of, 25, 56, 117–18, 149, 265–66, 272–78; Peary criticized in, 153–56, 274–76

  Nicaragua, 24–25

  Nietzsche, Friedrich, 87

  Nile River, 89–90

  Nimrod (ship), 120–22, 124–25, 167, 183, 191, 239–40, 247, 250

  Nimrod Expedition (1908–09), 268–69, 174, 191, 243–44, 253–54; 263, 266; at sea, 51, 122, 125–31; at winter quarters, 130–44, 163–67; launching of, 47–51, 64, 120–26, 146. See also northern sledge journey; southern sledge journey

  Nobel Prize, 281

  Nooktah, 31

  Nordenskiöld, Adolf, 23–24, 286n4

  Norgay, Tenzing, 280

  North Pole: American claims to, 98, 101, 210–14, 259–60, 273–77; as goal, xv, 3–24, 30–34, 43, 101, 115–16, 175, 258, 268, 280; in cultural imagination, 77, 82, 117–19, 276; race to, 46, 60, 99, 277

  North Star Bay, Greenland, 152

  northern sledge journey (Nimrod Expedition), 139, 163–74, 182–85, 238–46

  Northwest Passage, xvii, 4–6, 282

  Norton, Edward, 236

  Norway, 9–13, 25, 30, 33, 53, 88

  Nova Scotia, 104

  Ollier, Cesare, 91–92

  Oogueah, 205

  Oomanui, 151

  Ootah, 205, 212, 258

  Osborn, Bradley, 153

  Oslo, Norway, 12. See also Christiania, Norway

  Oyster Bay, New York, 97, 118, 146

  Pacific Ocean, 65–66, 71

  pack ice. See ice pack

  Pakistan, 218

  Panama Canal, 116

  Panikpah, 194

  Paris, France, 278

  Paris Geographical Society, 101

  Parish, Henry, 34

  Parker, Herschel, 118

  Parr, Alfred, 9

  Parry, William, 4, 5, 209, 267

  Peary, Josephine (Jo), 34; correspondence with Robert Peary, 38, 41–42, 300–301n37; in Arctic, 25, 28–29, 42, 45, 118, 147–49, 152, 155

  Peary, Marie, 28, 42, 45, 148–49

  Peary, Mary P., 23–25, 27, 42, 45

  Peary, Robert E., xvi, xx, 123, 171, 175, 182, 227; 1898–1902 expedition of, 32–45, 154; 1905–06 expedition of, 97–114; 1908–09 expedition of, 116–20, 143–62, 191–214, 255–60, 262–63; character of, 23–27, 37–38, 44–46, 116, 198, 209, 273–79; claims questioned of, 24, 26, 108–13, 154, 201, 205–9, 213–14, 255–56, 273–77, 286n6, 286n10, 307n88, 312n77; Cook and, 22–23, 259–60, 272–82, 300n27, 300n29, 300n32, 300n37; Duke of the Abruzzi and, 95, 215–16; Greenland expeditions of, 10–11, 13–14, 23–31, 149, 154, 288n47; leadership skills of, 158–59, 161, 192, 194–96, 198–201, 256, 299n6, 306–7n67; physical handicaps of, 32–38, 158, 161, 256–57; public image of, 153–56, 265–66, 274–77

  Peary Arctic Club, 32–34, 38, 46, 100, 105, 116–18, 153, 274