The Deluge
Page 64
46.J. Hobson, Imperialism: A Study (London, 1902).
47.For an excellent recent survey see A. D’Agostino, The Rise of Global Powers: International Politics in the Era of the World Wars (Cambridge, 2012).
48.N. Smith, American Empire: Roosevelt’s Geographer and the Prelude to Globalization (Berkeley, CA, 2003).
49.M. Nebelin, Ludendorff (Munich, 2010).
50.D. Fromkin, The Peace to End all Peace (New York, 1989).
51.For this argument the book owes much to A. Iriye, After Imperialism: The Search for a New Order in the Far East, 1921–1931 (Cambridge, MA, 1965).
52.D. Gorman, The Emergence of International Society in the 1920s (Cambridge, 2012).
53.As in earlier work I remain deeply indebted to M. Berg, Gustav Stresemann. Eine politische Karriere zwischen Reich und Republik (Göttingen, 1992).
54.N. Bamba, Japanese Diplomacy in a Dilemma (Vancouver, 1972), 360–66.
55.L. Trotsky, Perspectives of World Development (1924), http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1924/07/world.htm.
56.A. Hitler, Mein Kampf (London, 1939), vol. 2, chapter 13.
57.In deep agreement with R. Boyce, The Great Interwar Crisis and the Collapse of Globalization (London, 2009).
58.For a short introduction see A. Stephanson, Manifest Destiny: American Expansionism and the Empire of Right (New York, 1995).
59.Eisenach, Lost Promise, 225.
60.A theme most recently developed by D. E. Ellwood, The Shock of America (Oxford, 2012). For an insightful critique, see T. Welskopp and A. Lessoff (eds), Fractured Modernity: America Confronts Modern Times, 1890s to 1940s (Oldenbourg, 2012).
61.A conclusion reached from a very different direction by G. Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism: A Reinterpretation of American History, 1900–1916 (New York, 1963).
62.J. T. Sparrow, Warfare State: World War II Americans and the Age of Big Government (New York, 2011).
63.Douglas Steeples and David O. Whitten, Democracy in Desperation: The Depression of 1893 (Westport, CT, 1998).
64.The best short introduction remains A. S. Link, Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era 1910–1917 (New York, 1954).
65.W. C. Widenor, Henry Cabot Lodge and the Search for an American Foreign Policy (Berkeley, CA, 1983).
66.B. Knei-Paz, The Social and Political Thought of Leon Trotsky (Oxford, 1978).
67.V. I. Lenin, ‘The Chain Is No Stronger Than Its Weakest Link’, Pravda 67, 9 June (27 May) 1917; Lenin: Collected Works (Moscow, 1964), vol. 24, 519–20.
68.S. Hoffmann, Gulliver’s Troubles, or the Setting of American Foreign Policy (New York, 1968), 52. For other political science elaborations of ‘uneven and combined development’ see R. Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge, 1981).
1 WAR IN THE BALANCE
1.Amongst recent histories see H. Strachan, The First World War (London, 2003), and D. Stevenson, 1914–1918: The History of the First World War (London, 2004).
2.N. A. Lambert, Planning Armageddon: British Economic Warfare and the First World War (Cambridge, MA, 2012).
3.S. Roskill, Naval Policy Between the Wars (New York, 1968 and 1976), vol. 1, 80–81.
4.H. Nouailhat, France et Etats-Unis: Aout 1914–Avril 1917 (Paris, 1979), 349–55.
5.C. Seymour (ed.), The Intimate Papers of Colonel House (London, 1926), vol. 1, 312–13.
6.A. S. Link (ed.) et al., The Papers of Woodrow Wilson [hereafter PWW], 69 vols (Princeton, NJ, 1966–94), vol. 36, 120.
7.J. J. Safford, Wilsonian Maritime Diplomacy 1913–1921 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1978), 67–115.
8.P. O. O’Brian, British and American Naval Power: Politics and Policy, 1900–1936 (Westport, CT, 1998), 117.
9.R. Skidelsky, John Maynard Keynes: A Biography, 3 vols (New York, 1983–2000), vol. 1, 305–15.
10.K. Burk, Britain, America and the Sinews of War, 1914–1918 (London, 1985), and H. Strachan, Financing the First World War (Oxford, 2004).
11.K. Neilson, Strategy and Supply: The Anglo-Russian Alliance 1914–1917 (London, 1984), 106–12.
12.M. Horn, Britain, France, and the Financing of the First World War (Montreal, 2002).
13.Nouailhat, France, 368.
14.S. Broadberry and M. Harrison (eds), The Economics of World War I (Cambridge, 2005).
15.A classic account is H. Feis, Europe: The World’s Banker 1870–1914 (New York, 1965).
16.R. Chernow, The House of Morgan: An American Banking Dynasty and the Rise of Modern Finance (New York, 2001).
17.J. M. Keynes, The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes, vol. 16 (London, 1971–89), 197.
18.P. Roberts, ‘“Quis Custodiet Ipsos Custodes?” The Federal Reserve System’s Founding Fathers and Allied Finances in the First World War’, The Business History Review 72 (1998), 585–620.
19.E. Sanders, Roots of Reform (Chicago, IL, 1999) and A. H. Meltzer, A History of the Federal Reserve (Chicago, IL, 2002–3).
20.W. L. Silber, When Washington Shut Down Wall Street: The Great Financial Crisis of 1914 and the Origins of America’s Monetary Supremacy (Princeton, NJ, 2007).
21.N. Ferguson, The Pity of War: Explaining World War I (London, 1998).
22.A. Offer, The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation (Oxford, 1991).
23.For a survey see D. E. Ellwood, The Shock of America (Oxford, 2012).
24.J. Banno, Democracy in Prewar Japan: Concepts of Government 1871–1937 (London, 2001), 47.
25.W. Wilson, Congressional Government: A Study in American Government (PhD thesis, Johns Hopkins University, 1885).
26.D. T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, MA, 1998).
27.W. Wilson, ‘Democracy and Efficiency’, Atlantic Monthly (March 1901), 289.
28.T. Raithel, Das Wunder der inneren Einheit (Bonn, 1996).
29.T. Roosevelt, America and the World War (New York, 1915).
30.J. M. Cooper, The Warrior and the Priest: Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson (Cambridge, MA, 1983), 284–5.
31.W. Wilson, A History of the American People (New York, 1902), and J. M. Cooper, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography (New York, 2009).
32.PWW, vol. 57, 246.
33.W. Wilson, ‘The Reconstruction of the Southern States’, Atlantic Monthly, January 1901, 1–15.
34.R. E. Hannigan, The New World Power: American Foreign Policy, 1898–1917 (Philadelphia, PA, 2002), 45–8.
35.R. S. Baker and W. E. Dodd (eds), The Public Papers of Woodrow Wilson (New York, 1925–7), vol. 1, 224–5.
36.T. J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New Order (Princeton, NJ, 1992), 77.
37.PWW, vol. 37, 116.
38.PWW, vol. 40, 84–5.
39.PWW, vol. 41, 183–4, and repeated in February 1917, see ibid., 316–17.
40.B. M. Manly, ‘Have Profits Kept Pace with the Cost of Living?’, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 89 (1920), 157–62.
41.M. J. Pusey, Charles Evans Hughes (New York, 1951), vol. 1, 335–66.
42.The Memoirs of Marshal Joffre, trans. T. B. Mott (London, 1932), vol. 2, 461.
43.P. v. Hindenburg, Aus Meinem Leben (Leipzig, 1920), 180–81.
44.G. Ritter, Staatskunst und Kriegshandwerk (Munich, 1954–68), vol. 3, 246.
45.G. E. Torrey, Romania and World War I (Lasi, 1998), 174.
46.S. Miller, Burgfrieden und Klassenkampf: Die deutsche Sozialdemokratie in Ersten Weltkrieg (Düsseldorf, 1974), 263–4.
47.D. French, The Strategy of the Lloyd George Coalition, 1916–19 (Oxford, 1995), and M. G. Fry, Lloyd George and Foreign Policy (Montreal, 1977).
48.Keynes, The Collected Writ
ings (18 October 1916), vol. 16, 201.
49.Brilliantly set out in G.-H. Soutou, L’Or et le Sang: Les Buts de guerre économique de la Première Guerre Mondiale (Paris, 1989), 365–72, 398–9.
50.Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: Lansing Papers (Washington, DC, 1940), vol. 1, 306–7.
51.Seymour (ed.), Intimate Papers, vol. 2, 129.
52.Fry, Lloyd George, 219.
53.Neilson, Strategy and Supply, 191; A. Suttie, Rewriting the First World War: Lloyd George, Politics and Strategy 1914–1918 (London, 2005), 85.
2 PEACE WITHOUT VICTORY
1.V. I. Lenin, ‘Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism’, in V. I. Lenin, Selected Works (Moscow, 1963), vol. 1, 667–766.
2.On the left Lenin was arguing against theories of so-called ultra-imperialism, see K. Kautsky, ‘Der Imperialismus’, Die Neue Zeit 32, no. 2 (1914), 908–22. For a recent revival of this theory see A. Negri and M. Hardt, Empire (Cambridge, MA, 2001).
3.A. S. Link (ed.) et al., The Papers of Woodrow Wilson [hereafter PWW], 69 vols (Princeton, NJ, 1966–94), vol. 40, 19–20. For an illuminating revisionist narrative of America’s entry into the war, see J. D. Doenecke, Nothing Less Than War: A New History of America’s Entry into World War I (Lexington, KY, 2010).
4.PWW, vol. 40, 77.
5.P. Roberts, ‘“Quis Custodiet Ipsos Custodes?” The Federal Reserve System’s Founding Fathers and Allied Finances in the First World War’, Business History Review 72 (1998), 585–620.
6.H. Nouailhat, France et Etats-Unis: Aout 1914–Avril 1917 (Paris, 1979), 382.
7.J. Siegel, For Peace and Money (Oxford, 2014, forthcoming), chapter 4.
8.G.-H. Soutou, L’Or et le Sang: Les Buts de guerre économique de la Première Guerre Mondiale (Paris, 1989), 373–8; J. Wormell, The Management of the Public Debt of the United Kingdom (London, 2000), 222–41.
9.J. H. von Bernstorff, My Three Years in America (New York, 1920), 317.
10.T. J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New Order (Princeton, NJ, 1992), 110. On reactions in Russia see Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: Lansing Papers [hereafter FRUS: Lansing Papers] (Washington, DC, 1940), vol. 2, 320–21.
11.‘President Wilson and Peace’, The Times (London), Friday 22 December 1916, 9; ‘French Public Opinion’, The Times (London), 23 December 1916, 7.
12.Nouailhat, France, 393.
13.D. French, The Strategy of the Lloyd George Coalition, 1916–1918 (Oxford, 1995), 34.
14.Ibid., 38.
15.J. M. Keynes, Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes, vol. 16 (London, 1971).
16.The New York Times, 23 January 1917; PWW, vol. 40, 533–9.
17.Knock, To End All Wars, comes closest to grasping this, but treats the speech uncritically as a manifesto of progressivism. In the critical vein of the New Left is N. Levin, Woodrow Wilson and World Politics (New York, 1968), 260.
18.J. Cooper, The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, MA, 1983).
19.C. Seymour (ed.), The Intimate Papers of Colonel House (London, 1926), vol. 2, 412.
20.PWW, vol. 40, 533–9.
21.Bernstorff, My Three Years, 390–91.
22.The New York Times, 23 January 1917.
23.PWW, vol. 41, 11–12.
24.The New York Times, 23 January 1917.
25.‘Labour in Session’, The Times (London), 23 January 1917, 5.
26.‘War Aims of Labour’, The Times (London), 24 January 1917, 7.
27.The New York Times, 24 January 1917.
28.Nouailhat, France, 398.
29.Bernstorff, My Three Years, 286.
30.Ibid., 371.
31.‘Aufzeichnung über Besprechung 9.1.1917’, in H. Michaelis and E. Schraepler (eds), Ursachen und Folgen. Vom deutschen Zusammenbruch 1918 und 1945 (Berlin, 1958), vol. 1, 146–7.
32.K. Erdmann (ed.), Kurt Riezler. Tagebücher, Aufsaetze, Dokumente (Göttingen, 1972), 403–4.
33.M. Weber, Gesammelte politische Schriften (Tübingen, 1988).
34.As Lansing put it to Wilson on 2 February 1917, FRUS: Lansing Papers, vol. 1, 591–2.
35.K. Burk, ‘The Diplomacy of Finance: British Financial Missions to the United States 1914–1918’, The Historical Journal 22, no. 2 (1979), 359.
36.On the history of Atlanticism see M. Mariano, Defining the Atlantic Community (New York, 2010).
37.M. G. Fry, Lloyd George and Foreign Policy, vol. 1, The Education of a Statesman: 1890–1916 (Montreal, 1977), 34.
38.See D. Lloyd George, The Great Crusade: Extracts from Speeches Delivered during the War (London, 1918).
39.R. Hanks, ‘Georges Clemenceau and the English’, The Historical Journal 45, no. 1 (2002), 53–77.
40.PWW, vol. 42, 375–6. For Tardieu’s own understanding of the challenges facing this relationship see A. Tardieu, France and America: Some Experiences in Cooperation (Boston, MA, 1927).
41.PWW, vol. 41, 136, 256 and 336–7.
42.Ibid., 89, 94, 101, and PWW, vol. 42, 255.
43.PWW, vol. 41, 120.
44.M. Hunt, Ideology and US Foreign Policy (New Haven, CT, 1987), 129–30. Seeking to link Wilson to the Cold War, Hunt overemphasizes the importance of the Commune as opposed to the great revolution of 1789.
45.See Burke’s Speech on Conciliation with the Colonies, in Robert Andersen (ed.) with an introduction by Woodrow Wilson (Boston, MA, 1896), xviii.
46.W. Wilson, ‘The Character of Democracy in the United States’, in idem, An Old Master and Other Political Essays (New York, 1893), 114–15.
47.Wilson, ‘Democracy and Efficiency’, Atlantic Monthly LXXXVII (1901), 289.
48.Wilson, The Character of Democracy, 115.
49.Ibid., 114.
50.PWW, vol. 40, 133.
51.E. Mantoux, The Carthaginian Peace (New York, 1952), 50.
52.The best biographies remain D. Watson, Georges Clemenceau: A Political Biography (London, 1976), and G. Dallas, At the Heart of a Tiger: Georges Clemenceau and His World 1841–1929 (London, 1993).
53.G. Clemenceau, American Reconstruction, 1865–1870 (New York, 1969), 226.
54.W. Wilson, A History of the American People (New York, 1901), vol. 5, 49–53.
55.Clemenceau, American Reconstruction, 84.
56.The similarity between Clemenceau’s and Roosevelt’s positions on peace and justice was remarked upon by Clemenceau already in 1910 in lectures collected in G. Clemenceau, Sur La Democratie (Paris 1930), 124–5.
57.E. Benton, The Movement for Peace Without Victory during the Civil War (Columbus, OH, 1918), and J. McPherson, This Mighty Scourge (Oxford, 2007), 167–86.
58.Roosevelt waited until Wilson refused to act on Germany’s aggression before unleashing this tirade. ‘PEACE WITHOUT VICTORY MEANS PEACE WITHOUT HONOR’, in Poverty Bay Herald XLIV, 20 March 1917, 8. See E. Morrison (ed.), The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, MA, 1954), 1162–3.
59.PWW, vol. 41, 87.
60.FRUS: Lansing Papers, vol. 2, 118–20.
61.PWW, vol. 41, 201 and 283.
62.Ibid., 123 and 183–4.
63.Zimmermann to Bernstorff on 19 January 1917, in Michaelis and Schraepler, Ursachen und Folgen, vol. 1, 151–2.
64.Quoted in F. Katz, The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago, IL, 1981), 359–60.
65.W. Rathenau, Politische Briefe (Dresden, 1929), 108.
66.A. S. Link, Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era 1910–1917 (New York, 1954), 275.
67.PWW, vol. 42, 140–48.
3 THE WAR GRAVE OF RUSSIAN DEMOCRACY
1.
N. Saul, War and Revolution: The United States and Russia, 1914–1921 (Lawrence, KS, 2001), 97–98.
2.The best recent narrative is O. Figes, A People’s Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924 (London, 1996).
3.Snapshots of the popular mood in M. Steinberg, Voices of Revolution, 1917 (New Haven, CT, 2001).
4.A. S. Link (ed.) et al., The Papers of Woodrow Wilson [hereafter PWW], 69 vols (Princeton, NJ, 1966–94), vol. 41, 425–7.
5.PWW, vol. 41, 440, and Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: Lansing Papers [hereafter FRUS: Lansing Papers] (Washington, DC, 1940), vol. 1, 626–8, 636.
6.Wilson’s declaration of war, 2 April 1917.
7.Quoted in M. Winock, Clemenceau (Paris, 2007), 418–19.
8.For a vivid account see N. Sukhanov, The Russian Revolution, 1917: A Personal Record (London, 1955), 202–3.
9.Sukhanov, Russian Revolution, 240–41.
10.W. Roobol, Tsereteli – A Democrat in the Russian Revolution: A Political Biography (The Hague, 1976); M. Khoundadze, La révolution de février 1917: La social-démocratie contre le bolchevisme, Tsertelli face à Lenine (Paris, 1988); R. Abraham, Alexander Kerensky: The First Love of the Revolution (London, 1987).
11.V. I. Lenin, ‘Letter to Pravda on 7 April 1917’, in V. I. Lenin, Collected Works (Moscow, 1964), vol. 24, 19–26.
12.J. H. von Bernstorff, My Three Years in America (London, 1920), 383.
13.D. Stevenson, ‘The Failure of Peace by Negotiation in 1917’, The Historical Journal 34, no. 1 (1991), 65–86.
14.S. Miller, Burgfrieden und Klassenkampf: Die deutsche Sozialdemokratie im Ersten Weltkrieg (Düsseldorf, 1974), 283–98.
15.PWW, vol. 42, MacDonald to Wilson, 29 May 1917, 420–22.
16.J. Turner, British Politics and the Great War: Coalition and Conflict 1915–1918 (New Haven, CT, 1992).
17.L. Gardner, Safe for Democracy: The Anglo-American Response to Revolution, 1913–1923 (Oxford, 1987), 138; A. Suttie, Rewriting the First World War: Lloyd George, Politics, and Strategy, 1914–1918 (Houndmills, 2005), 191–4.
18.S. Carls, Louis Loucheur and the Shaping of Modern France 1916–1931 (Baton Rouge, FL, 1993), 43–4, 50–51.
19.C. Seton-Watson, Italy from Liberalism to Fascism 1870–1925 (London, 1979), 468–71.