The Deluge

by Adam Tooze

  20.Der Interfraktioneller Ausschuss, 1917/18 [hereafter IFA], eds E. Matthias and R. Morsey (Düsseldorf, 1959), vol. 1, 3–13.

  21.M. Epstein, Matthias Erzberger and the Dilemma of German Democracy (Princeton, NJ, 1959).

  22.IFA, vol. 1, 15.

  23.I. Sinanoglou, ‘Journal de Russie d’Albert Thomas: 22 avril–19 juin 1917’, Cahiers du Monde Russe et Soviétique 14, no. 1/2 (1973), 86–204, and J. Winter, Socialism and the Challenge of War (London, 1974), 243–59.

  24.Wade, Russian Search for Peace, 79–80.

  25.FRUS: Lansing Papers, vol. 2, 332 and 338.

  26.PWW, vol. 43, 465–70 and 487–9; see also PWW, vol. 42, 140–41.

  27.PWW, vol. 42, 365–7.

  28.Ibid., 385.

  29.J. J. Wormell, Management of the National Debt in the United Kingdom, 1900–1932 (London, 2000), 249–59.

  30.J. Terraine, White Heat: The New Warfare 1914–18 (London, 1982), 218.

  31.D. French, The Strategy of the Lloyd George Coalition, 1914–1918 (Oxford, 1995), 101–23.

  32.B. Millman, Managing Domestic Dissent in First World War Britain (London, 2000).

  33.V. I. Lenin, ‘Peace Without Annexations and the Independence of Poland as Slogans of the Day in Russia’, http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/feb/29.htm.

  34.V. I. Lenin, ‘The Discussion on Self-Determination Summed Up, July 1916’, in V. I. Lenin, Collected Works, (Moscow, 1963), vol. 22, 320–60.

  35.V. I. Lenin, ‘The Petrograd City Conference of the R.S.D.L.P. 14–22 April 1917’, in ibid., Collected Works (Moscow, 1964), vol. 24, 139–66.

  36.FRUS: Lansing Papers, vol. 2, 340–41; L. Bacino, Reconstructing Russia: U.S. Policy in Revolutionary Russia, 1917–1922 (Kent, OH, 1999).

  37.L. Heenan, Russian Democracy’s Fatal Blunder: The Summer Offensive of 1917 (New York, 1987).

  38.A. Kerensky, The Kerensky Memoirs (London, 1965), 285.

  39.H. Herwig, The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914–1918 (London, 1997), 338.

  40.M. Thompson, The White War: Life and Death on the Italian Front 1915–1919 (New York, 2008), 294–327.

  41.H. Hagenlücke, Deutsche Vaterlandspartei (Düsseldorf, 1997).

  42.Abraham, Kerensky, 257.

  43.Ibid., 305.

  44.R. Service, Lenin: A Biography (London, 2000), 304.

  45.O. Radkey, Russia Goes to the Polls: The Election to the All-Russian Constituent Assembly, 1917 (Ithaca, NY, 1989), 63.

  46.PWW, vol. 43, 471–2.

  47.Ibid., 523.

  48.Ibid., 509.

  49.Ibid., 523–5.

  50.O. Radkey, The Agrarian Foes of Bolshevism: Promise and Default of the Russian Socialist Revolutionaries, February to October 1917 (New York, 1958), 85.

  51.Ibid., 88.

  4 CHINA JOINS A WORLD AT WAR

  1.W. Wheeler, China and the World War (New York, 1919), 100.

  2.A. S. Link (ed.) et al., The Papers of Woodrow Wilson [hereafter PWW], 69 vols (Princeton, NJ, 1966–94), vol. 41, 108–12.

  3.G. Xu, China and the Great War (Cambridge, 2005), 162–3.

  4.For a savage critique of the memorandum by Frank Goodnow of Columbia, see B. Putnam Weale, The Fight for the Republic in China (New York, 1917), 142–90; J. Kroncke, ‘An Early Tragedy of Comparative Constitutionalism: Frank Goodnow and the Chinese Republic’, Pacific Rim Law and Policy Journal 21, no. 3 (2012), 533–90.

  5.W. Kirby, ‘The Internationalization of China: Foreign Relations at Home and Abroad in the Republican Era’, The China Quarterly 150, ‘Special Issue: Reappraising Republican China’ (1997), 433–58.

  6.D. Kuhn, Die Republik China von 1912 bis 1937 (Heidelberg, 2004), 89.

  7.T.S. Chien, The Government and Politics of China (Cambridge, MA, 1950), 75–6.

  8.S. Craft, V. K. Wellington Koo and the Emergence of Modern China (Lexington, KY, 2004), 40–41.

  9.J. Sheridan, China in Disintegration: The Republican Era in Chinese History, 1912–1949 (New York, 1977), 69.

  10.N. Bose, American Attitudes and Policy to the Nationalist Movement in China (1911–1921) (Bombay, 1970), 105.

  11.Xu, China and the Great War, 213.

  12.S. Schram (ed.), Mao’s Road to Power: Revolutionary Writings 1912–1949: The Pre-Marxist Period, vol. 1, 1912–1920 (New York, 1992), 104.

  13.N. Pugach, Paul S. Reinsch: Open Door Diplomat in Action (Millwood, NY, 1979), 226.

  14.PWW, vol. 41, 177.

  15.Ibid., 175.

  16.Ibid., 185.

  17.N. Kawamura, Turbulence in the Pacific: Japanese–US Relations During World War I (Westport, CT, 2000), 66.

  18.C. Tsuzuki, The Pursuit of Power in Modern Japan 1825–1995 (Oxford, 2000).

  19.F. Dickinson, War and National Reinvention: Japan in the Great War 1914–1919 (Cambridge, MA, 1999).

  20.L. Gardner, Safe for Democracy: The Anglo-American Response to Revolution, 1913–1923 (Oxford, 1987), 83; Xu, China and the Great War, 94–7.

  21.K. Kawabe, The Press and Politics in Japan (Chicago, IL, 1921); F. R. Dickinson, World War I and the Triumph of a New Japan, 1919–1930 (Cambridge, 2013), 52.

  22.Dickinson, War and National Reinvention, 150–65.

  23.M. Schiltz, The Money Doctors from Japan: Finance, Imperialism, and the Building of the Yen Bloc, 1895–1937 (Cambridge, MA, 2012), 135–54.

  24.P. Duus, Party Rivalry and Political Change in Taisho Japan (Cambridge, 1968), 97–9.

  25.P. Duus (ed.), The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 6, The Twentieth Century (Cambridge, 1988), 280.

  26.Weale, Fight, 206.

  27.Quoted in Pugach, Reinsch, 226.

  28.Wheeler, China and the World War, 71.

  29.PWW, vol. 41, 186.

  30.PWW, vol. 42, 53–4.

  31.Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: Lansing Papers [hereafter FRUS: Lansing Papers] (Washington, DC, 1940), vol. 2, 19–32, and Y. Zhang, China in the International System, 1918–1920 (Basingstoke, 1991), 203.

  32.M. Bergere, Sun Yat-Sen (Stanford, CA, 1998), 271.

  33.Wheeler, China and the World War, 51.

  34.‘American Press Tributes to Dr Wu Ting-Fang’, China Review 3 (1922), 69–72.

  35.Xu, China and the Great War, 241.

  36.PWW, vol. 42, 466.

  37.Wheeler, China and the World War, 94.

  38.The New York Times Current History, vol. 13, The European War (New York, 1917), 353.

  39.Wheeler, China and the World War, 173–4.

  40.FRUS: Lansing Papers, vol. 2, 432–3.

  41.Kawamura, Turbulence in the Pacific, 91–2.

  42.Xu, China and the Great War, 226–7.

  43.G. McCormack, Chang Tso-Lin in Northeast China, 1911–1928: China, Japan and the Manchurian Idea (Stanford, CA, 1977).

  44.Dickinson, War and National Reinvention, 223.

  45.PWW, vol. 42, 60–64.

  46.Pugach, Reinsch, 236.

  47.M. Metzler, Lever of Empire: The International Gold Standard and the Crisis of Liberalism in Prewar Japan (Berkeley, CA, 2005), 108–9.

  5 BREST-LITOVSK

  1.F. Fischer, Griff nach der Weltmacht: Die Kriegszielpolitik des Kaiserlichen Deutschland, 1914–18 (Düsseldorf, 1961).

  2.J. Wheeler-Bennett, Brest-Litovsk: The Forgotten Peace, March 1918 (London, 1938).

  3.For a history of Ober Ost written entirely in the shadow of the Third Reich see V. Liulevicius, War Land on the Eastern Front: Culture, National Identity, and German Occupation in World War I (Cambridge, 2000).

  4.V. I. Lenin, ‘The Debate on Self-Determination Summed Up’, in V.
I. Lenin, Collected Works (Moscow, 1964), vol. 22, 320–60.

  5.V. I. Lenin, ‘Statistics and Sociology’, in V. I. Lenin, Collected Works (Moscow, 1964), vol. 23, 271–7.

  6.T. Snyder, The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999 (New Haven, CT, 2003).

  7.‘Hitch in Negotiations: German Delegates Point to Peoples Who Desire . . .’, The New York Times, 31 December 1917.

  8.Der Interfraktioneller Ausschuss, 1917/18 [hereafter IFA], eds E. Matthias and R. Morsey (Düsseldorf, 1959), vol. 1, 213–402.

  9.Heinz Hagenlücke, Deutsche Vaterlandspartei (Düsseldorf, 1996).

  10.IFA, vol. 1, 635.

  11.W. Ribhegge, Frieden für Europa: Die Politik der deutschen Reichstagsmehrheit, 1917–18 (Essen, 1988), 228–9.

  12.M. Llanque, Demokratisches Denken im Krieg: Die deutsche Debatte im Ersten Weltkrieg (Berlin, 2000), 207.

  13.A. Vogt, Oberst Max Bauer, Generalstabsoffizier im Zwielicht, 1869–1929 (Osnabrück, 1974), 108.

  14.K. Erdmann (ed.), Kurt Riezler: Tagebücher, Aufsaetze, Dokumente (Göttingen, 1972).

  15.W. Ribhegge, Frieden für Europa. Die Politik der deutschen Reichstagsmehrheit 1917/18 (Berlin, 1988), 228–9.

  16.P. Gatrell, A Whole Empire Walking: Refugees in Russia during World War I (Indiana, IN, 2005).

  17.Hagenlücke, Vaterlandspartei, 204.

  18.I. Geiss, Der polnische Grenzstreifen 1914–1918: Ein Beitrag zur deutschen Kriegszielpolitik im Ersten Weltkrieg (Lübeck, 1960), 129.

  19.For the Erzberger jibe see Ribhegge, Frieden, 173–5. For the SPD response, ibid., 228–9.

  20.P. Theiner, Sozialer Liberalismus und deutsche Weltpolitik. Friedrich Naumann im Wilhelminischen Deutschland (1860–1919) (Baden-Baden, 1983), 242–58.

  21.M. Berg, Gustav Stresemann und die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika: weltwirtschaftliche Verflechtung und Revisionspolitik, 1907–1929 (Baden-Baden, 1990), 43.

  22.IFA, vol. 1, 11.

  23.R. Service, Lenin: A Biography (Düsseldorf, 2000), 321–5.

  24.Fischer, Griff, 299–300.

  25.Fischer, Griff, 299–300.

  26.J. Snell, ‘The Russian Revolution and the German Social Democratic Party in 1917’, Slavic Review 15, no. 3 (1956), 339–50; see also IFA, vol. 1, 631–2.

  27.S. Miller, Burgfrieden und Klassenkampf: Die deutsche Sozialdemokratie im Ersten Weltkrieg (Düsseldorf, 1974), 228–9.

  28.K. Epstein, Matthias Erzberger and the Dilemma of German Democracy (Princeton, NJ, 1959), 219–20, 237.

  29.On the renegotiation of sovereignty more generally see M. Koskenniemi, The Gentle Civilizer of Nations: The Rise and Fall of International Law 1870–1960 (Cambridge, 2002), 172.

  30.S. D. Krasner, Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy (Princeton, NJ, 1999).

  31.Miller, Burgfrieden, 351.

  32.Wheeler-Bennett, Brest, 117–20.

  33.G. Kennan, Russia Leaves the War: Soviet-American Relations, 1917–1920 (Princeton, NJ), vol. 1, 136.

  34.C. Seymour (ed.), The Intimate Papers of Colonel House (Boston, MA, 1926–8), vol. 3, 264–85.

  35.W. Hahlweg (ed.), Der Friede von Brest-Litowsk. Ein unveröffentlichter Band aus dem Werk des Untersuchungsauschusses der deutschen verfassungsgebenden Nationalversammung und des deutschen Reichstages (Düsseldorf, 1971), 150–53.

  36.A. May, The Passing of the Habsburg Monarchy, 1914–1918 (Philadelphia, PA, 1966), vol. 1, 458.

  37.IFA, vol. 2, 86.

  38.Full text in Hahlweg, Der Friede, 176.

  39.Summarized in V. I. Lenin, ‘Theses on the Question of the Immediate Conclusion of a Separate and Annexationist Peace, 7 January 1918’, in V. I. Lenin, Collected Works (Moscow, 1972), vol. 26, 442–50.

  40.Wheeler-Bennett, Brest, 145.

  41.L. Gardner, Safe for Democracy: The Anglo-American Response to Revolution, 1913–1923 (Oxford, 1987), 160.

  42.E. Manela, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (Oxford, 2007), 19–53.

  43.B. Unterberger, The United States, Revolutionary Russia, and the Rise of Czechoslovakia (Chapel Hill, NC, 1989), 94–5.

  44.For this and what follows, see A. S. Link (ed.) et al., The Papers of Woodrow Wilson [hereafter PWW], 69 vols (Princeton, NJ, 1966–94), vol. 45, 534–9.

  45.Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: Lansing Papers (Washington, DC, 1940), vol. 2, 348.

  46.See the devastating critique in Kennan, Russia Leaves the War, 255–72.

  47.C. Warvariv, ‘America and the Ukrainian National Cause, 1917–1920’, in T. Hunczak (ed.), The Ukraine 1917–1921: A Study in Revolution (Cambridge, MA, 1977), 366–72.

  48.PWW, vol. 45, 534–9.

  49.D. Woodward, Trial by Friendship: Anglo-American Relations, 1917–1918 (Lexington, KY, 1993), 153–4.

  50.B. Unterberger, ‘Woodrow Wilson and the Russian Revolution’, in A. Link (ed.), Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World (Chapel Hill, NC, 1982), 54.

  6 MAKING A BRUTAL PEACE

  1.J. Reshetar, The Ukrainian Revolution, 1917–1920: A Study in Nationalism (Princeton, NJ, 1952), 53–4.

  2.W. Stojko, ‘Ukrainian National Aspirations and the Russian Provisional Government’, in T. Hunczak (ed.), The Ukraine 1917–1921: A Study in Revolution (Cambridge, MA, 1977).

  3.P. Borowsky, Deutsche Ukrainepolitik 1918 unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Wirtschaftsfragen (Lübeck, 1970), 21–5.

  4.E. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, 1917–1923 (London, 1966), vol. 1, 301.

  5.W. Hahlweg (ed.), Der Friede von Brest-Litowsk: Ein unveröffentlichter Band aus dem Werk des Untersuchungsausschusses der deutschen verfassunggebenden Nationalversammlung und des deutschen Reichstages (Düsseldorf, 1971), 299.

  6.Hahlweg, Friede, 332, an English rendition in J. Wheeler-Bennett, Brest-Litovsk: The Forgotten Peace, March 1918 (London, 1938), 161–3.

  7.The most famous tragic interpretation is that offered by the German sociologist Max Weber in a speech delivered in early 1919, ‘Politics as a Vocation’. Significantly, to arrive at his tragic conclusions Weber distorts Trotsky’s meaning by quoting only a fragment of his first sentence; see Peter Lassman and Ronald Speirs (eds), Weber: Political Writings (Cambridge, 1994), 310.

  8.M. D. Steinberg, Voices of Revolution, 1917 (New Haven, CT, 2001), 262–73.

  9.W. H. Roobol, Tsereteli – A Democrat in the Russian Revolution: A Political Biography (The Hague, 1977), 181–2.

  10.J. Bunyan and H. Fisher (eds), The Bolshevik Revolution 1917–1918: Documents and Materials (Stanford, CA, 1934), 369–80.

  11.M. Gorky, Untimely Thoughts (New Haven, CT, 1995), 124–5.

  12.R. Pipes, The Russian Revolution (New York, 1990), 554.

  13.V. I. Lenin, ‘People from Another World’, in V. I. Lenin, Collected Works (Moscow, 1972), vol. 26, 431–3.

  14.J. Siegel, For Peace and Money (Oxford, 2014, forthcoming), chapter 5.

  15.C. Bell and B. Elleman, Naval Mutinies of the Twentieth Century: An International Perspective (London, 2003), 45–65.

  16.P. Scheidemann, Der Zusammenbruch (Berlin, 1921), 70–71.

  17.Der Interfraktioneller Ausschuss, 1917/18 [hereafter IFA], eds E. Matthias and R. Morsey (Düsseldorf, 1959), vol. 2, 188–93.

  18.Wheeler-Bennett, Brest-Litovsk, 209–11.

  19.K. Liebknecht, Politische Aufzeichnungen aus seinem Nachlass (Berlin, 1921), 51, cited in L. Trotsky, My Life (New York, 1960), 378.

  20.G.-H. Soutou, L’Or et le Sang: Les Buts de guerre économique de la Première Guerre Mondiale (Paris, 1989), 661–3.

  21.Wheeler-Bennett, Brest-Litovsk, 171.

  22.Pipes, Russian Revolu
tion, 591.

  23.Quoted retrospectively in V. I. Lenin, ‘Peace or War, 23 February 1918’, in V. I. Lenin, Collected Works (Moscow, 1972), vol. 27, 36–9.

  24.R. Debo, Revolution and Survival: The Foreign Policy of Soviet Russia 1917–1918 (Toronto, 1979), 120–21.

  25.Wheeler-Bennett, Brest-Litovsk, 226–9.

  26.IFA, vol. 2, 250.

  27.Ibid., 163.

  28.For this and the following, W. Baumgart and K. Repgen, Brest-Litovsk (Göttingen, 1969), 58–66.

  29.The Kaiser’s words were: ‘bolshewiki tiger, kesseltreiben abschiessen’.

  30.Baumgart and Repgen, Brest-Litovsk, 61.

  31.Ibid., 62.

  32.Ibid., 66.

  33.R. von Kühlmann, Erinnerungen (Heidelberg, 1948), 548.

  34.I. Geiss, Der polnische Grenzstreifen, 1914–1918. Ein Beitrag zur deutschen Kriegszielpolitik im Ersten Weltkrieg (Lübeck, 1960), 132–4.

  35.M. Hoffmann, War Diaries and Other Papers (London, 1929), vol. 1, 205.

  36.R. Pipes, Russia under the Bolshevik Regime (New York, 1994), 27–8, 52.

  37.Pipes, Russian Revolution, 588.

  38.Debo, Revolution, 124–46.

  39.Wheeler-Bennett, Brest-Litovsk, 245.

  40.Pipes, Russian Revolution, 594.

  41.V. I. Lenin, ‘Political Report of the Bolshevik Central Committee, 7 March 1918. Seventh Congress of the Russian Communist Party: Verbatim Report 6–8 March 1918’, in V. I. Lenin, Collected Works (Moscow, 1972), vol. 27, 85–158.

  42.R. Service, Lenin: A Political Life (Bloomington, IN, 1985), 327–30.

  43.V. I. Lenin, ‘Extraordinary Fourth All-Russia Congress of Soviets, 14–16 March 1918’, in V. I. Lenin, Collected Works (Moscow, 1972), vol. 27, 169–201.

  44.W. Ribhegge, Frieden für Europa: Die Politik der deutschen Reichstagsmehrheit, 1917–18 (Essen, 1988), 264–5.

  45.Der Interfraktioneller Ausschuss, 1917/18, eds E. Matthias and R. Morsey (Düsseldorf, 1959), vol. 2, 285–91; S. Miller, Burgfrieden und Klassenkampf: Die deutsche Sozialdemokratie im Ersten Weltkrieg (Düsseldorf, 1974), 368.

  46.Wheeler-Bennett, Brest-Litovsk, 304–7.

  47.Ribhegge, Frieden, 268.

  48.IFA, vol. 2, 303.

  49.Stevenson, With Our Backs to the Wall (London, 2011), 42, 53–4.