The Deluge

by Adam Tooze

  50.W. Churchill, The World Crisis, 1916–1918 (New York, 1927), vol. 2, 132.

  51.W. Goerlitz (ed.), Regierte Der Kaiser? Kriegstagebücher, Aufzeichnungen und Briefe des Chefs des Marinekabinetts Admiral George Alexander von Mueller, 1914–1918 (Göttingen, 1959), 366.

  52.Erich Ludendorff, My War Memories (London, 1919), vol. 2, 602.

  53.Max von Baden, Erinnerungen und Dokumente (Stuttgart, 1968), 242–3.

  7 THE WORLD COME APART

  1.W. Baumgart, Deutsche Ostpolitik 1918. Von Brest-Litowsk bis zum Ende des Ersten Weltkrieges (Vienna and Munich, 1966), 40.

  2.S. F. Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography 1888–1938 (London, 1974).

  3.‘The Chief Task of Our Day’, Izvestia VTsIK, no. 46, 12 March 1918, in V. I. Lenin, Collected Works (Moscow, 1972), vol. 27, 159–63.

  4.For this and following, Seventh Congress of the Russian Communist Party: Verbatim Report, 6–8 March 1918, in ibid., 85–158.

  5.Baumgart, Deutsche Ostpolitk, 36. This telltale admission was later removed from the official Moscow edition of Lenin’s collected works.

  6.R. Pipes, The Russian Revolution (New York, 1990), 603–5.

  7.P. E. Dunscomb, Japan’s Siberian Intervention, 1918–1922 (Plymouth, 2011), 40.

  8.F. R. Dickinson, War and National Reinvention: Japan in the Great War, 1914–1919 (Cambridge, MA, 1999), 57 and 197.

  9.J. Morley, The Japanese Thrust into Siberia, 1918 (New York, 1957), 53.

  10.Dickinson, War, 183–4.

  11.Dunscomb, Siberian Intervention, 42–3.

  12.Dickinson, War, 196.

  13.S. Naoko, Japan, Race and Equality: The Racial Equality Proposal of 1919 (London, 2003), 109.

  14.C. Tsuzuki, The Pursuit of Power in Modern Japan, 1825–1995 (Oxford, 2000), 206.

  15.G. Kennan, Russia Leaves the War: Soviet-American Relations, 1917–1920 (Princeton, NJ), vol. 1, 272–3.

  16.B. M. Unterberger, ‘Woodrow Wilson and the Russian Revolution’, in Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World, ed. Arthur S. Link (Chapel Hill, NC, 1982), 61.

  17.Kennan, Soviet-American, 480.

  18.C. Seymour (ed.), The Intimate Papers of Colonel House (Boston, MA, 1926–8), vol. 3, 399.

  19.Pipes, Russian Revolution, 598–9.

  20.Morley, The Japanese Thrust, 140–41.

  21.N. Kawamura, Turbulence in the Pacific: Japanese-US Relations during World War I (Westport, CT, 2000), 116; A. S. Link (ed.) et al., The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 69 vols (Princeton, NJ, 1966–94).

  22.House at least did, recognizing the existence of ‘two parties in Japan’, see Seymour (ed.), Intimate Papers, vol. 3, 415.

  23.U. Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire 1914–1918 (Princeton, NJ, 1968), 249.

  24.See the exchange between Erzberger, Kühlmann and Hertling in June 1918, in Der Interfraktioneller Ausschuss, 1917/18 [hereafter IFA], eds E. Matthias and R. Morsey (Düsseldorf, 1959), vol. 2, 410.

  25.R. G. Hovanissian, Armenia on the Road to Independence, 1918 (Berkeley, CA, 1967), 175.

  26.Baumgart, Ostpolitik, 181.

  27.Ibid., 193–4.

  28.Hovannisian, Armenia on the Road to Independence, 184.

  29.A policy acknowledged in Reichstag committee, IFA, vol. 2, 519.

  30.Trumpener, Germany, 256–7.

  31.R. G. Suny, The Making of the Georgian Nation (Bloomington, IN, 1994), 192.

  32.Baumgart, Ostpolitik, 269.

  33.P. Borowsky, Deutsche Ukrainepolitik, 1918 (Lübeck 1970).

  34.As Erzberger insisted in discussion with German authorities in Ukraine, IFA, vol. 2, 407.

  35.See the explanation given to the Reichstag majority in IFA, vol. 2, 404.

  36.Max Hoffmann, War Diaries and Other Papers (London, 1929), vol. 1, 209.

  37.T. Hunczak, ‘The Ukraine under Hetman Pavlo Skoropadskyi’, in idem., The Ukraine: A Study in Revolution, 1917–1921 (Cambridge, MA, 1977), 61–81.

  38.A. F. Upton, The Finnish Revolution 1917–1918 (Minneapolis, MN, 1980).

  39.C. J. Smith, Finland and the Russian Revolution 1917–1922 (Athens, GA, 1958), 78.

  40.Stanley G. Payne, Civil War in Europe 1905–1940 (Cambridge, 2011), 30.

  41.Pipes, Russian Revolution, 612–15.

  42.Baumgart, Ostpolitik, 37.

  43.R. H. Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Relations 1917–1921, vol. 1, Intervention and the War (Princeton, NJ, 1961), 177.

  44.Baumgart, Ostpolitik, 267–8.

  45.‘“Left-Wing” Childishness’, written April 1918, first published 9, 10, 11 May 1918 in Pravda, nos 88, 89, 90; Lenin, Collected Works (Moscow, 1972), vol. 27, 323–34.

  46.Baumgart, Ostpolitik, 264.

  47.Russian American Relations March 1917–March 1920 (New York, 1920), Doc. 73, 152–3.

  48.Ibid., Doc. 91, 209.

  49.D. W. McFadden, Alternative Paths: Soviets and Americans 1917–1920 (Oxford, 1993), 122.

  50.Baumgart, Ostpolitik, 70.

  51.Ibid., 129.

  52.Ibid., 183.

  53.K. Epstein, Matthias Erzberger and the Dilemma of German Democracy (Princeton, NJ, 1959), 239–40.

  54.Borowsky, Deutsche Ukrainepolitik, 190–92.

  55.See Gothein, IFA, vol. 2, 289.

  56.See his protests against interference in Lithuanian education, IFA, vol. 2, 388.

  57.Epstein, Erzberger, 242.

  58.W. Baumgart and K. Repgen (eds), Brest-Litovsk (Göttingen, 1969), 100. The Reichstag majority had resisted the German intervention from the outset, see IFA, vol. 2, 316–17.

  8 INTERVENTION

  1.R. H. Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Relations, 1917–1921 (Princeton, NJ, 1962), vol. 1, 169.

  2.C. Seymour (ed.), The Intimate Papers of Colonel House (Boston, MA, 1926–8), vol. 3, 410.

  3.R. Pipes, The Russian Revolution (New York, 1990), 558–65.

  4.B. M. Unterberger, The United States, Revolutionary Russia and the Rise of Czechoslovakia (Chapel Hill, NC, 1989), 124–7.

  5.Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: Lansing Papers (Washington, DC, 1940), vol. 2, 126–8, 139–41 and 364.

  6.L. Gardner, Safe for Democracy: The Anglo-American Response to Revolution, 1913–1923 (Oxford, 1987), 186.

  7.Quoted in Unterberger, United States, 235.

  8.Quoted in T. J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New Order (Princeton, NJ, 1992), 161.

  9.I. Somin, Stillborn Crusade: The Tragic Failure of Western Intervention in the Russian Civil War 1918–1920 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1996), 40.

  10.Ullman, Anglo-Soviet, 222.

  11.Ibid., 305.

  12.Ibid., 221–2.

  13.Pipes, Russian Revolution, 633–5.

  14.W. Baumgart, Deutsche Ostpolitik 1918. Von Brest-Litowsk bis zum Ende des Ersten Weltkrieges (Vienna and Munich, 1966), 85.

  15.Ibid., 85–6.

  16.F. Fischer, Griff nach der Weltmacht: Die Kriegszielpolitik des Kaiserlichen Deutschland, 1914–18, (Düsseldorf, 1961), 836–40.

  17.Der Interfraktioneller Ausschuss, 1917/18 [hereafter IFA], eds E. Matthias and R. Morsey (Düsseldorf, 1959), vol. 2, 400–01.

  18.Baumgart, Ostpolitik, 139.

  19.M. Kitchen, The Silent Dictatorship: The Politics of the German High Command under Hindenburg and Ludendorff, 1916–1918 (London, 1976), 204.

  20.IFA, vol. 2, 413–18.

  21.Quoted in W. Ribhegge, Frieden für Europa: Die Politik der deutschen Reichstagsmehrheit, 1917–18 (Essen, 1988), 299.

  22.IFA, vol. 2, 447–65.

  23.Ibid., 426–8.

  24.
Ibid., 517.

  25.Ibid., 474.

  26.Pipes, Russian Revolution, 638–9.

  27.Pipes, Russian Revolution, 653–6; Baumgart, Ostpolitik, 232.

  28.A. J. Mayer, Furies: Violence and Terror in the French and Russian Revolutions (Princeton, NJ, 2000), 273–4.

  29.Ibid., 277.

  30.Lenin speech to All-Russia Central Executive Committee, Fifth Convocation, 29 July 1918, in V. I. Lenin, Collected Works (Moscow, 1965), vol. 28, 17–33.

  31.K. Helfferich, Der Weltkrieg (Berlin, 1919), vol. 3, 466.

  32.Rosa Luxemburg, ‘The Russian Tragedy’, Spartacus, no. 11, 1918.

  33.IFA, vol. 2, 505–6.

  34.Baumgart, Ostpolitik, 109.

  35.Pipes, Russian Revolution, 664–6; Baumgart, Ostpolitik, 111–13.

  36.The effort by G.-H. Soutou, L’Or et le Sang. Les Buts de guerre économique de la Première Guerre Mondiale (Paris, 1989), 706–8, to read the supplementary Brest Treaty as a preliminary to Rapallo is far too generous to Lenin. However, he is right that the economic terms were hardly punitive.

  37.M. Kitchen, The Silent Dictatorship: The Politics of the German High Command under Hindenburg and Ludendorff, 1916–1918 (New York, 1976), 242; Baumgart, Ostpolitik, 201.

  38.Pipes, Russian Revolution, 666.

  39.R. Pipes, Russia under the Bolshevik Regime (New York, 1994), 53–5.

  40.IFA, vol. 2, 476–9.

  41.Baumgart, Ostpolitik, 313–15.

  42.IFA, vol. 2, 474–9, 500–01.

  43.Helfferich, Weltkrieg III, 490–92.

  44.IFA, vol. 2, 517.

  45.Baumgart, Ostpolitik, 318–19.

  46.C. Tsuzuki, The Pursuit of Power in Modern Japan, 1825–1995 (Oxford, 2000), 206.

  47.In whole-hearted agreement with Pipes, Russian Revolution, 668–70, who however oversimplifies the German position.

  9 ENERGIZING THE ENTENTE

  1.D. Stevenson, With Our Backs to the Wall: Victory and Defeat in 1918 (London, 2011).

  2.See for a typical assessment the comments by an anguished conservative under-secretary at the time of Germany’s parliamentarization in September 1918, Der Interfraktioneller Ausschuss, 1917/18, eds E. Matthias and R. Morsey (Düsseldorf, 1959), vol. 2, 773–8.

  3.M. Knox, To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33, vol. 1, Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and National Socialist Dictatorships (Cambridge, 2007), 143–231.

  4.L. V. Smith, S. Audoin-Rouzeau and A. Becker, France and the Great War (Cambridge, 2003).

  5.P. O’Brien, Mussolini in the First World War: The Journalist, The Soldier, The Fascist (Oxford, 2005).

  6.G. Clemenceau, ‘Discours de Guerre’, Chambre des Députés, Assemblée Nationale, Paris (8 March 1918).

  7.D. Watson, Georges Clemenceau: A Political Biography (London, 1976), 275–92.

  8.G. Clemenceau, Demosthenes (New York, 1926).

  9.W. A. McDougall, France’s Rhineland Diplomacy 1914–1924 (Princeton, NJ, 1978), 17–25.

  10.H. J. Burgwyn, The Legend of the Mutilated Victory: Italy, the Great War, and the Paris Peace Conference, 1915–1919 (Westport, CT, 1993).

  11.C. Seton-Watson, Italy from Liberation to Fascism, 1870–1925 (London, 1967), 485.

  12.D. Rossini, Woodrow Wilson and the American Myth in Italy (Cambridge, MA, 2008), 125–31.

  13.For a brilliant near-contemporary account see L. Hautecoeur, L’Italie sous le Ministère Orlando 1917–1919 (Paris, 1919), 83–110.

  14.C. Killinger, Gaetano Salvemini: A Biography (Westport, CT, 2002).

  15.K. J. Calder, Britain and New Europe 1914–1918 (Cambridge, 1976), 180–82.

  16.G. A. Heywood, Failure of a Dream: Sidney Sonnino and the Rise and Fall of Liberal Italy 1847–1922 (Florence, 1999).

  17.H. Nicolson, Peacemaking, 1919 (London, 1933), 167.

  18.S. Di Scala, Vittorio Orlando (London, 2010), 119; Rossini, Woodrow Wilson, 142–6.

  19.For all of what follows the indispensable reference is J. Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World System, 1830–1970 (Cambridge, 2009).

  20.J. Grigg, Lloyd George: War Leader, 1916–1918 (London, 2002), 61.

  21.For a brilliant overview see R. Fanning, Fatal Path: British Government and Irish Revolution, 1910–1922 (London, 2013).

  22.J. P. Finnan, John Redmond and Irish Unity, 1912–1918 (Syracuse, NY, 2004).

  23.C. Duff, Six Days to Shake an Empire (London, 1966).

  24.J. S. Mortimer, ‘Annie Besant and India 1913–1917’, Journal of Contemporary History 18, no. 1 (January 1983), 61–78.

  25.H. F. Owen, ‘Negotiating the Lucknow Pact’, The Journal of Asian Studies 31, no. 3 (May 1972), 561–87.

  26.A. Rumbold, Watershed in India, 1914–1922 (London, 1979), 64.

  27.Ibid., 73.

  28.B. R. Tomlinson, The Political Economy of the Raj, 1914–1947: The Economics of Decolonization in India (London, 1979).

  29.Rumbold, Watershed, 71–2.

  30.P. Robb, ‘The Government of India and Annie Besant’, Modern Asian Studies 10, no. 1 (1976), 107–30.

  31.H. Owens, The Indian Nationalist Movement, c. 1912–1922: Leadership, Organisation and Philosophy (New Delhi, 1990), 85.

  32.R. Kumar, Annie Besant’s Rise to Power in Indian Politics, 1914–1917 (New Delhi, 1981), 115.

  33.B. Millman, Managing Domestic Dissent in First World War Britain (London, 2000), 170.

  34.H. C. G. Matthew, R. I. McKibbin and J. A. Kay, ‘The Franchise Factor in the Rise of the Labour Party’, The English Historical Review 91, no. 361 (October 1976), 723–52.

  35.The indispensable reference remains M. Pugh, Electoral Reform in War and Peace, 1906–1918 (London, 1978).

  36.Ibid., 103.

  37.J. Lawrence, ‘Forging a Peaceable Kingdom: War, Violence, and Fear of Brutalization in Post-First World War Britain’, Journal of Modern History 75, no. 3 (2003), 557–89.

  38.D. H. Close, ‘The Collapse of Resistance to Democracy: Conservatives, Adult Suffrage, and Second Chamber Reform, 1911–1928’, The Historical Journal 20, no. 4 (December 1977), 893–918.

  39.Pugh, Electoral Reform, 136.

  40.S. S. Holton, Feminism and Democracy: Women’s Suffrage and Reform Politics in Britain, 1900–1918 (Cambridge, 1986), 149.

  41.Pugh, Electoral Reform, 75.

  42.Darwin, Empire Project, 353.

  43.Ibid., 348.

  44.Rumbold, Watershed, 88.

  45.S. D. Waley, Edwin Montagu: A Memoir and an Account of his Visits to India (London, 1964), 130–34.

  46.R. Danzig, ‘The Announcement of August 20th, 1917’, The Journal of Asian Studies 28, no. 1 (November 1968), 19–37; R. J. Moore, ‘Curzon and Indian Reform’, Modern Asian Studies 27, no. 4 (October 1993), 719–40.

  47.Waley, Montagu, 135.

  48.Ibid., 137–8.

  49.H. Tinker, The Foundations of Local Self-Government in India, Pakistan and Burma (London, 1954), 112–61.

  50.All of the following are from E. Montagu and F. Chelmsford, The Constitution of India Under British Rule: The Montagu-Chelmsford Report (New Delhi, 1992).

  51.D. A. Low, Lion Rampant: Essays in the Study of British Imperialism (London, 1973).

  52.T. R. Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj (Cambridge, 1997), 225–6.

  53.M. Gandhi, Collected Works (New Delhi, 1999), vol. 17, ‘Appeal for Enlistment 22 June 1918’.

  54.S. Sarkar, Modern India, 1885–1947 (Madras, 1983), 150.

  55.Kumar, Annie Besant, 112–13.

  56.Manela’s imaginative construction of an Indian Wilsonian moment relies heavily on the lone figure of Lala Lajpat Rai; see E. Manela, The Wils
onian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (Oxford, 2007), 84–97.

  57.S. Hartley, The Irish Question as a Problem in British Foreign Policy, 1914–1918 (Basingstoke, 1987), 107.

  58.Finnan, Redmond, 190.

  59.A. S. Link (ed.) et al., The Papers of Woodrow Wilson [hereafter PWW], 69 vols (Princeton, NJ, 1966–94), vol. 42, 24–5 and 41–2.

  60.M. Beloff, Imperial Sunset: Britain’s Liberal Empire, 1897–1921 (London, 1969), vol. 1, 316.

  61.Hartley, The Irish Question, 147–8.

  62.Ibid., 153.

  63.PWW, vol. 42, 542. Wilson himself had requested these reports, see PWW, vol. 43, 360–61.

  64.Hartley, Irish Question, 134.

  65.Ibid., 175.

  66.Ibid., 178.

  67.House of Lords parliamentary debates, May 1917, 170.

  68.Hartley, Irish Question, 172 and 191.

  69.J. Gallagher, ‘Nationalisms and the Crisis of Empire, 1919–1922’, Modern Asian Studies 15, no. 3 (1981), 355–8.

  70.E. Monroe, Britain’s Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1971 (Baltimore, MD, 1981), 26–35.

  71.B. C. Bush, Britain, India, and the Arabs, 1914–1921 (Berkeley, CA, 1971).

  72.H. Luthy, ‘India and East Africa: Imperial Partnership at the End of the First World War’, Journal of Contemporary History 6, no. 2 (1971), 55–85.

  73.A reversal brought into brilliant focus by Darwin, Empire Project, 311–17.

  74.D. R. Woodward, Trial by Friendship: Anglo-American Relations, 1917–1918 (Lexington, KY, 1993), 174.

  75.J. Kimche, The Unromantics: The Great Powers and the Balfour Declaration (London, 1968), 66.

  76.J. Renton, The Zionist Masquerade: The Birth of the Anglo-Zionist Alliance, 1914–1918 (Houndsmill, 2007); L. Stein, The Balfour Declaration (London, 1961).

  77.M. Levene, ‘The Balfour Declaration: A Case of Mistaken Identity’, The English Historical Review 107, no. 422 (January 1992), 54–77.

  78.J. Reinharz, ‘The Balfour Declaration and Its Maker: A Reassessment’, The Journal of Modern History 64, no. 3 (September 1992), 455–99; R. N. Lebow, ‘Woodrow Wilson and the Balfour Declaration’, The Journal of Modern History 40, no. 4 (December 1968), 501–23.

  79.Grigg, Lloyd George, 308–9.