The Deluge
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gold 344, 345, 349, 359, 505; standard 38, 345, 346, 355, 363, 505
growth in power through the war 6–7, 11
and the Hague Convention 267
Harding administration 348–9, 372, 432, 439, 441, 443; and the Washington Conference 396–7, 401
hegemonic crisis model 18–20, 26
Hoover administration 488
image 41
immigration law 348
and India 210
industry 41; industrial action (1919) 247, 341–2, 343, 409; Industrial Conference 341
interest rates 344–5, 349
invisible influence on post-war international order 3–4, 515–16
isolationism 348, 505, 517
and Italy see Italy: and the US
and Japan see Japan: and the US
Jewish-Americans 43
and the Ku Klux Klan 339, 347
labour movement 43, 340–42
and the League of Nations 267, 336–7; and the absent presence of US power 515–16; and Article X of Covenant 335, 336–7; and Britain 258, 259–61, 266, 268–70, 271, 455; and Geneva Protocols 470–71; and the need for the US to dissociate from former allies 303; Republican support 335; and Wilson 16, 53, 54, 222–3, 243, 255–6, 259–63, 264, 266, 269–70, 277, 325, 326, 337, 516
Liberty Bonds/Loans 206–7, 208, 215, 216, 342, 343, 344
and the London Naval Conference 491–2, 493
and the Middle East 193–6, 378
militarized great power destiny 517
military spending 514
and the Monroe doctrine 15, 310
National Equal Rights League 339
nationalism: and exceptionalism 27; and US role in international economy 349; Wilson presidency as triumphant nationalism 348
navy 15, 268–9, 362, 490; 1916 expansion 35–6, 56; and the Pacific 401 see also Washington Naval Conference
New Deal 505, 517
New Freedom 340, 346, 461
Open Door policy 15–16, 44, 103, 205; and the Washington Conference 397, 405
and the Panama Canal 44
Pax Americana 7
‘peace without victory’ goal 16, 50–67, 72, 75–8, 86–7, 211, 222, 257, 461
Penrose Bill 372–3
perception of Europe as the ‘Dark Continent’ 17–18, 26
Philippine conquest 41
Pittman Act 210
populist movement 43
post-war problems: economic 342–7, 346, 349–50; industrial 341–2, 343; racial 338–40; ‘Red movement’ 340, 342, 354, 409, 517; reluctance to face challenges 26–7
private long-term foreign investment 495–6; December 1930 476–7
privileged detachment of 67, 516
problematic entry into modernity 27–9
productivism 201
protectionism 15, 349, 492, 493, 501
and the quest for pacification and appeasement strategies 26
race riots (1919) 339–40
recognition of Provisional Government of Russia 68
Reconstruction 44, 63–4
Red movement/Red Scare 340, 342, 354, 409, 517
refusal to take sides in War 16, 44–5, 46, 52, 53–7, 60, 65
Republican Party 37, 231, 347, 348, 396; 1916 Presidential campaign 46; 1918 mid-term election campaign 340; abolitionists 63; Entente supporters 59; and the League of Nations 335; reaction to Wilson’s ‘peace without victory’ 55; and the Treaty Fight 335–6
resource funnelling into Europe 201–5
and Russia/USSR: aid (1917) 80; American anti-Bolshevik agitation 340; Bullitt’s mission to Russia 236; Cold War see Cold War; debts to US 302; economic cooperation proposal (May 1918) 152–3; famine relief 12, 425, 435; and the grave of Russian democracy 86–7; and House 86–7; and Japan 141, 144–5,
408; and the Kellogg-Briand Pact 472; Lansing’s view of Bolshevism 144; in October Revolution aftermath 86–7; and the Petrograd formula 76–8; Portsmouth Treaty arbitration 408; and refusal to attend Genoa Conference 430; and the reinvention of Communism 409; and the Siberian intervention 156, 158–9; and Soviet sponsorship of Northern Expedition 511; and the Trans-Siberian railway 80, 158; US recognition of Provisional Government 68; and the Washington Naval Conference 11; and Wilson’s 14 Points manifesto 121–3, 134, 143, 144, 145
Seattle general strike (February 1919) 340
shipping 202–4, 205; Emergency Fleet Corporation 35, 203
silver 210
Smoot Hawley tariff 501, 504
Spanish-American War 15, 41, 44
strikes: 1914–1921 247; 1919 341–2, 343; and the Communist vision 409; Seattle general strike (February 1919) 340
and the suppression of imperialism 15–16
trade policy reversal after Wilson 348–9
trade unions 46, 340, 341–2
Treasury 80, 216, 303, 304, 343–5; Certificates 345
Trotsky’s concerns and views 6, 8–9, 11, 12
and Turkey 194
unemployment 345–6, 348
and Versailles see Wilson, Woodrow: and Versailles
wages 46, 216, 339, 343
War Industries Board 207
Washington Conference see Washington Naval Conference
Wilson presidency see Wilson, Woodrow
Wilsonianism see Wilsonianism
working class militancy 246, 247 see also United States of America: strikes
working hours 246
and the world economy 26, 476–7
US Steel 341, 342
USPD (Independent Social Democratic Party, Germany) 73, 75, 111, 130, 237, 238, 239, 242, 319, 320
‘All Power to the Soviets’ slogan 409
and the Berne conference 242
and Brest-Litovsk 139
inquiry into German war guilt 313
and the Second Socialist International 240, 242
split with Comintern’s 21 Points 418
USSR see Soviet Union
Varela, Hector 353
Vaterlandspartei (Homeland Party, Germany) 82, 111, 112, 130
Vatican peace initiative 87
Venezuala, US private long-term investment (December 1930) 477
Venice 82
Venizelos, Eleftherios 382, 438
Verdun, battle of 3, 11, 33, 37, 46, 47, 57, 176
Versailles/Paris peace conferences and Treaty 223, 226, 229, 251, 255–70
and the abolition of conscription 265, 277, 313
anticipated failure of 17
assigning of war guilt 9
and China 255, 282, 321–3; and Shandong 321, 323, 326–9, 336, 397
compliance in Asia 321–32
compliance in Europe 305–20
Council of Ten 291
criminalizing of the Kaiser 9
cruelty and kindness of 271–2, 280, 287
danger of clash between Europeans and Wilson 277–8, 307
and the Dawes Plan 458–9, 460–61, 470
and the DNVP 460–61
and Egypt 379
final phase (from May 1919) 312–18
and France 5, 255, 256, 257–8, 271–5, 277–80, 281, 286–7, 291; and the Middle East 378 see also Clemenceau, Georges: and Versailles
German consideration of 312–18
and the German National Assembly 313, 317, 318–19
and German reparations 288, 292, 295, 297–8, 313–14, 489
and German revisionism 489, 490
and German sovereignty 272–6, 287, 289, 436, 448–9
and Italy 255, 308–11
and Japan 255, 256, 258–9, 321–8, 329, 363; and Shandong 321, 323, 326–9, 336, 397
and Keynes 271, 295–301
and the League of
Nations Covenant 255–6, 259–70, 271, 324–6, 335
and Lloyd George 249–50, 282, 307, 314, 328
National Assembly vote 318
and a patchwork world order 255–70
and Prussia 283, 314, 316
Quai d’Orsay conference 235, 255
Saint-Germain Treaty 330
and self-determination/sovereignty 272–6, 287, 289, 436, 448–9
and Shandong 321, 323, 326–9, 336, 397
smaller conferences in Parisian suburbs 330
unfinished peace of 4
US assessment of budget positions ahead of 249
and Wilson see Wilson, Woodrow: and Versailles
Victory Loan 343
Vienna 42, 109, 116, 117–18
Congress of 273, 274–5
Kreditanstalt 495
Viereck, George Sylvester 66
Volpi, Giuseppe 466
Vorwaerts 162–3
Vossische Zeitung 154
Wallace, Hugh Campbell 360–61
Wang, C. T. 91, 103
war guilt 9
war pensions 248
Washington Naval Conference 4, 11–12, 396–407, 435, 439
and Canada 437
and China 397, 402–7
and France 400–401, 406
and Japan 11, 397–400, 402–7
naval disarmament 397–402
Nine Power Treaty 405
Root resolutions 402–3
Weber, Max 58
Weizmann, Chaim 195
Wellesley, Victor 406
West Africa 374
Westarp, Kuno von 112
Western Front 11, 33, 39, 116, 139
American arrival on 202, 204
decisive turn against Germany (July 1918) 218
Somme offensive 33, 37, 46, 47
Spring offensive 140
strategic balance 206
Western Powers
Brussels Conference 425
and the Chinese Nationalists 481–3, 511
Entente see Entente
Genoa Conference see Genoa Conference
and Germany after World War II 275–6
Hindenburg line assault 173, 200
Inter-Allied Conference (November 1917) 116, 197
inter-Allied economic cooperation 204–5
Inter-Allied Supply Council 207
inter-Allied war debts 298–304, 302, 349, 439, 440, 466–70, 468, 473, 488–9, 496–7, 498
interwar failures 26–7 see also Europe as the ‘Dark Continent’; hegemonic crisis model; liberalism: interwar derailment of
and Japan’s grip on Manchuria 500
Nine Power Treaty 405
seen as oppressive threat 7–8
and Shandong 321, 323, 326–9, 336, 397, 403
Soviet alarm at Japanese relations 475
and Soviet debt repudiation 129, 425
Supreme War Council 205
Trotsky’s rapprochement attempts with 145
and Turkish nationalism 381–2
twin problems of economics and security 26
Versailles conference see Versailles/Paris peace conferences and Treaty
Washington Conference see Washington Naval Conference
see also specific nations
Westphalia, Treaty of 273, 274–5
Whampoa military academy 479
White forces 235, 236, 410–11, 417
Finnish White Guards 150–51
Polish-Soviet War 412–13, 417
White solidarity 392
White Terror, China 483
Wiedfeldt, Otto 458
Wilckens, Kurt Gustav 353–4
Wilhelm II of Germany 5, 47, 112
anti-Semitism 134–5
Bad Homburg conference (February 1918) 134–5
and Brest-Litovsk 118, 126
criminalized 9
Easter proclamation (1917) 73
and Finland 150–51
national celebration proclamation (23 March 1918) 140
speech of 15 June 1918 162
Wilson’s demand for abdication 224, 225
Williams, John Skelton 347
Wilson, Sir Henry 364, 376
Wilson, Woodrow 67
14 Points manifesto 53, 109, 119–23, 134, 143, 144, 145, 158, 198, 224, 226, 227, 228, 230, 233, 327
and the 1920 general election 338
and Alsace-Lorraine 242
and the American navy 35–6, 56
American opposition over armistice and 14 Points 229–31
appeal to public on global scale 416
and Armenia 378
armistice as Wilsonian script 218–31; and contention in the US 229–31; Wilson’s unilateral negotiations with Berlin 222–5, 229, 231
and the ascendency of the Southern Democrats 14
background and rise to prominence 43–4, 61
boycotting of Stockholm process 122
breaking of diplomatic relations with Germany 89
and Brest-Litovsk 109
Buckingham Palace speech 240
and Bullitt’s mission to Russia 236
and Burke 61
and China 60, 91, 92, 98–9, 102, 105
and Clemenceau 243, 244, 277–8
and Czech independence 158
and Danzig 282
death 233
declaration of war 66–7, 78
and democracy 29, 41, 44, 190; ‘democratic peace’ initiative 240; Russian democracy 145; Wilson’s view of European democracy 61
departure from White House 348
depiction by Wilsonian propagandists 17, 256
and after-effects of war mobilization in the US 338–40
and Entente loans 51
European tour (1918) 21, 232–3, 240, 257, 279
and the Federal Reserve Board 38–9
and France 240, 276–7, 400
and freedom of the seas 16, 45, 53, 120, 228, 257, 268–70
and German reparations 293–5
as global celebrity 16
goals: of American vindication and pre-eminence 44–5, 55, 516; of controlling British Empire associations 106–7; of making world safe for democracy 29; of ‘peace without victory’ 16, 50–67, 72, 75–8, 86–7, 211, 222, 257, 461
governmental style promise 338
and the Habsburgs 9
hypertension 334
ideological perspectives on foreign policy see Wilsonianism
and the imperialists 17, 22–3
and industrial action (1919) 341–2
Industrial Conference 341
and the Inter-Allied Conference, (November 1917) 116
and Ireland 190, 193, 377
and Italy 307, 308–10
and Japan 144–5, 146, 327
and Keynes 296–7
and the labour movement 340–42
and the League of Nations 16, 53, 54, 222–3, 243, 255–6, 259–63, 264, 266, 269–70, 277, 325, 326, 337, 516
and Lenin 10, 17, 21, 109, 123, 146
and liberalism 221, 232–3
and Lloyd George 62, 158–9, 203, 224, 243, 244, 269–70, 335
London Treaty denunciation 307
mediation offer rejected by Central Powers 52
and the National Equal Rights League 339
negotiated peace idea 16, 48, 50–67; as effort to insulate domestic reform 28; ‘Peace Note’ 52
on the new order 45
Open Door policies 16, 44
and the Ottomans 9
and Palestine 196
and the Panama Canal 44
presidency: new ways of >using 334; as triumphant nationalism
348
re-election (1916) 46
rejection of revolutionary defensists 122
and Robins 153
Roosevelt on Wilson and the ‘Copperheads’ 64–5
and the Russians 76–8, 236; attempts to enlist revolution against Germany 145; Lenin 17, 21, 109, 146; and Russia’s appeals for peace 87; Trotsky 109, 122
Senate speech, 22 January 1917 53, 55–6
and shipping 203
and the Siberian intervention 158, 159–60
Southern cause 64
strokes 335, 341
and the Trans-Siberian railway 80
and the Union of Democratic Control (Britain) 244
Vatican peace initiative dismissal 87
and Versailles 28, 63, 193, 255–6, 277–8, 280–81, 282, 283, 307, 323, 328, 516; refusal to raise Irish question 377; and the Treaty Fight in Congress 335–8 see also League of Nations: and Wilson
view of history 61–2
and ‘white civilization’ 60, 92
and world peace 255
Wilsonianism
14 Points see Wilson, Woodrow: 14 Points manifesto
armistice as Wilsonian script see under Wilson, Woodrow
construction of interwar history 17–18
as detrimental to domestic progressive coalitions 243–4
exceptionalism 27
fiasco of 333–50
and the Great Depression 28 see also Great Depression
internationalism 16, 27, 119, 241, 244
New Freedom 340, 346–7, 461
perception of European and Japanese history 17–18
propagandist depiction of Wilson 17, 256
and Versailles see Wilson, Woodrow: and Versailles
see also Wilson, Woodrow
Windsor, House of 74
Wirth, Joseph 370, 430, 432
Wiseman, Sir William 146
Wladimirovich, Germán Boris 354
women
franchise: Britain 183–5; India 188; suffragette militants 340