Anatomy Lessons From the Great Masters
Page 3
14 3/4″ × 11 1/4″ (375 × 285 mm)
Bequest of C. H. Shannon
Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts
Structural Points, Lateral Aspect
In analyzing old master drawings, no matter where you begin, you must decide what the artist had in mind when he drew the shapes, sizes, and positions of the masses, lines, and values.
In this drawing, Cellini has emphasized the fold of the iliac line (A). You can see the high point (B) of the crest of the pelvis and, above, the external oblique muscle (C) lightly overlapping the posterior crest.
The rib cage is in slight rotation and flexion upon the pelvis. The external oblique is contracted—a strong flexion fold (D) marks the upper limit of its abdominal portion. This fold also is at the level of the tip of the tenth rib and the base of the rib cage.
Just below the pelvic point (E) is the secondary point (F), and just above the pelvic point, on the line of the crest of the ilium, is the wide point (G).
The large dimple (H) in the side of the gluteus maximus marks the back of the great trochanter (I) of the femur. The vertical groove (J), below, is a line between the functions that separates the quadriceps (K) from the hamstring groups (L) of muscles. The term “line between the functions” refers to the break that forms between two sets of muscles when they meet. It should be distinguished from a plane break, which merely describes a change in the direction between two planes.
Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1571)
DRAWING OF A SATYR FOR THE PORTAL OF FONTAINEBLEAU
pen and wash on paper
16 1/4″ × 7 15/16″ (415 × 202 mm)
Woodner Family Collection I, New York
Muscles, Anterior Aspect
Any artist who has sketched ballet dancers or athletes in action knows that the ball and socket hip joint (A) in the pelvis provides a great degree of freedom for the movement of the femur bone of the thigh.
All the muscles that flow over the hip are capable of moving the femur bone at the hip joint. Above the joint, the muscular masses are attached to the pelvis or sacrum and, below the joint, to the femur of the upper leg or the tibia or fibula of the lower leg.
The shaft of the femur descends obliquely through the thigh from the depression below the gluteus medius (B), where the tensor of the fasciae latae (C) and the vastus externus (D) converge, to the level of the bulge of the medial condyle (E) below at the inner knee. The muscles of the outer thigh reflect the forward convexity of the femur.
For convenience, artists have combined the muscular masses that make up the front of the thigh. The vastus externus (D), vastus internus (F), vastus intermedins or crureus (G), and rectus femoris (H) combine to form the quadriceps group. This mass moves down along the front of the leg, from the secondary point (I) to the patella or kneecap (J). The adductor group (K) fills out the internal section of the thigh between the spiral-like sartorius muscle (L) and the lower fold of the groin (M).
The left leg is raised and bends at the hip and knee. The weight of the body is balanced upon the other leg, and the pelvis is tilted laterally to accommodate this sideward leg lift. The rectus femoris (N) is contracted as it assists the sartorius (O), the adductors (P), the gluteal muscles in the buttocks, and the deep muscles of the spine and pelvis in these actions at the hip joint.
Michelangelo has used his great knowledge of anatomy to create the rhythmic insertion of one group of masses into another, which contributes so much to the harmony and unity of his drawings.
Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564)
THE RISEN CHRIST
black chalk
14 11/16″ × 8 11/16″ (373 × 221 mm)
Reproduced by gracious permission of Her Majesty the Queen
Royal Library, Windsor
Muscles, Posterior Aspect
As a student of drawing and anatomy, you will soon discover that curiosity can be one of your greatest assets. Observation, continually reinforced by questioning the shapes, sizes, directions, and relationships of forms, will rapidly advance your knowledge and skills. For example, let us consider how Bronzino depicts the posterior aspect of the female.
The curve of the vertebral column (A) suggests the slight rotation and lateral inclination of the thorax. The sacral dimples, graded in value from dark on the right (B) to almost imperceptible on the left (C), mark the bottom of the vertebral column, the back point of the iliac crest of the pelvis, and the top of the equilateral triangle of the sacrum. The greater width of the female pelvis, together with her tendency to fatty deposits, contributes to the greater width in the average woman at a point (D) below the level of the great trochanter (E). In a man, this point tends to be higher and at about the level of the tensor (F). Could it be that Bronzino’s wavering line in this area was intended to make this adjustment?
The outline of the thighs depends on the shape of the vastus externus (G) on the outside and on the inside on the shape of the gracilis (H) above and the sartorius (I) below. The mass of the hamstring group (J) fills out the back of the thigh down to the knee joint.
To avoid a static, equilateral, light shape on the gluteus maximus (K), Bronzino extended the light area to include the gluteus medius (L), placing the shading of the plane break along the edge of both masses.
The observant artist knows that the gluteal fold (M) at the base of the gluteus maximus is more pronounced in the standing leg than the bent one. He can then utilize this crease to suggest the contour and direction of the lower buttocks and thigh. He also knows, as Bronzino has shown here, that with the flexion of the leg, the depth of the fold decreases and its direction becomes more oblique (N).
Agnolo Bronzino (1503-1572)
COPY AFTER BANDINELI’S CLEOPATRA
black chalk on white paper
15 1/8″ × 8 7/8″ (384 × 225 mm)
Bequest of Charles A. Loeser
Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge
Muscles, Medial Aspect
Even in the rough scratchings of his pen and ink drawing, Titian instinctively simplified anatomical details by grouping them into constructional masses.
The curve of his outline and the long inner hatching lines describe in a simple way the shape of the adductor mass (A), which fills the upper portion of the inner thigh. Shorter hatchings curve over the lower sartorius (B) as it follows the thin, straplike tendon of the gracilis muscle (C).
The long fleshy ovoid of the vastus internus (D) extends to the middle of the patella or kneecap (E). Its backward movement along the edge of the sartorius is indicated by a long line of hatchings (F) that suggest its contour. Above the vastus internus (D) outlining the front of the thigh and reflecting the long curve of the thigh bone beneath, the rectus femoris (G) is lightly outlined.
Titian’s pen practically dances over the page. Practice varying the pressure and angle of your pen or pencil for greater interest, more variety, and better design.
Titian (1477/90-1576)
SKETCH FOR THE SAINT SEBASTIAN
pen and ink
7 1/4″ × 4 3/4″ (183 × 118 mm)
Stadelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt-am-Main
Gluteus Maximus
In order to place the muscles of the body, it is helpful to first locate the bones. The larger figure in Bertora’s drawing is standing on her right leg. Her pelvis tilts downward in the direction of its unsupported side and is pushed upward by the supporting leg, carrying the muscular masses with it. You can check the degree of the tilt by the position of the sacral triangle (A). From the posterior superior iliac spine or back point (B) of the iliac crest at the dimple of the sacral triangle, you can approximate the other pelvic points: the high point (C), wide point (D), pelvic point (E), secondary point (F), and point of the ischium (G).
From these points, you can further construct the figure. You know that the iliac crest of the pelvis makes an angle at about halfway between the back point (B) and the high point (C), known to artists as the re-entering angle (H). A continuation o
f the vertical line at this angle points to the line of the angle of the ribs (I), which is the outside limit of the strong chords of the back (J) and the major plane break of the back. Bertora has knowingly massed both of his figures along this line.
You can now easily place the origin of the gluteus maximus (K) in the posterior iliac crest (B) and in the sacrum (A). This large muscular mass covers the posterior portion of the gluteus medius (L). The gluteus maximus is a powerful muscle. It straightens and rotates your thigh, lifts you up from a seated posture, keeps you erect by supporting your pelvis from behind, and pulls your flexed thigh back when you walk.
Jacopo Bertora
STUDIES OF TWO FEMALE NUDES, SEEN FROM THE BACK
red chalk
10 9/16″ × 7 3/4″ (268 × 197 mm)
National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh
Gluteus Medius
The crest of the ilium (A) is only lightly indicated on the central figure. However, at the pelvic point (B), you can distinguish its short bulge from the curve of the tensor fasciae latae (C).
The gluteus medius (D) originates in the anterior iliac crest above, and is inserted in the great trochanter of the humerus bone (E) below.
In its shape and actions, the fan-shaped gluteus medius is similar to the deltoid muscle of the shoulder. The lateral fibers (F) of the gluteus medius, acting together with the gluteus minimus beneath it, abduct the femur; the anterior fibers (G) rotate the femur internally and assist in flexing it; while the posterior fibers (H) extend the femur and rotate it externally.
You can test the counterbalancing action of the gluteus medius on your own body. Stand erect with your hands placed over the upper side of your hips. Now, if you lift one leg, you will feel the gluteus medius of the other side contract. When you walk, the gluteus medius on the side of the supporting leg holds the pelvic bone to the great trochanter so you do not fall over. As you take the step, the rotary action of the gluteus medius swings the pelvis forward. By alternation of this action in walking, the muscle keeps the pelvis level.
Raphael has only lightly indicated the line between the functions of the gluteus medius (I), which moves out from the great trochanter (E). He has placed the strong value contrast of his dominant plane break on the gluteus maximus (J). Below, he has lightly indicated another line between the functions on the thigh (K), where the gluteus maximus moves between the quadriceps (L) and the hamstring (M) groups. He has kept the strong plane break well to the back of the thigh.
Raphael Sanzio (1483-1520)
THREE GRACES (STUDY FOR THE FARNESINA DECORATIONS)
red chalk
8″ × 10 1/4″ (203 × 260 mm)
Reproduced by gracious permission of Her Majesty the Queen
Royal Library, Windsor
Tensor Fasciae Latae
The figure in Géricault’s study for “The Raft of Medusa” is depicted lying exhausted over a portion of the raft. Try to familiarize yourself with the important points on the pelvis that are invaluable clues in working from the model: the right (A) and left (B) pelvic points, the middle line of the linea alba (C), and symphysis pubis (D), and the curve of the iliac crest (E). After locating these points, you can now begin to see the tilt and shape of the pelvis.
At a position about two fingers below and slightly back from the pelvic point is the secondary point (F), the origin of the rectus femoris (G). Géricault drives the inner edge of the adductor group (I) and the line of the sartorius (H) to the pelvic point (B).
Géricault uses lines again in the half ovoid of the navel (J). Consider how its position and shape, together with the adjacent hatchings, suggest the shape and direction of the abdomen.
We know that the rectus femoris (G) is situated in the middle of the anterior thigh. Here, it contracts to flex or bend the thigh, assisted by the tensor fasciae latae (K) next to it. The great trochanter is indicated by a dimple (L) where the adjacent gluteus medius (M) inserts from above. The tensor fasciae latae (K) lies close to the trochanter and separates the buttocks from the anterior or front of the thigh. From its origin at the front of the iliac crest (E) and at the pelvic point (B), the tensor (K) moves into the iliotibial band (N) at the outer side of the leg, creating the traction that keeps your knee from buckling when you walk. Because of its position in front of the hip joint, the tensor can assist in the inward rotation and the abduction or outward movement of the thigh.
When the upper leg is extended, as it is here, artists think of the tensor as a spindle shape or a bump on the relaxed side. But when the leg is bent and the tensor is compressed upon itself, the tensor looks like a double-egg symbol.
Théodore Géricault (1791-1824)
STUDY FOR ONE OF THE FIGURES ON THE RAFT OF THE MEDUSA
charcoal on white paper
11 1/2″ × 8 1/8″ (289 × 205 mm)
Musée des Beaux Arts, Besançon
Sartorius
In this drawing Leonardo is preoccupied with the muscles of the anterior thigh. Its masses are as clearly defined as a good version of the plaster cast of Houdon’s flayed figure that we see in art schools.
The sartorius (A) or “tailor’s muscle” is named after the crosslegged position of tailors, a pose that accentuated this most superficial muscle of the thigh and the longest muscle in the body. From its origin in the pelvic point (B), its ribbonlike form spirals obliquely downward and inward across the thigh. It forms the boundary between the adductor group (C) at the upper and inner thigh, and the quadriceps (D) on the outer thigh.
Like the rectus femoris (E), the sartorius passes over and acts upon two joints. From its origin at the side of the pelvis, the contracting sartorius can pull upon its insertion at the inner tibia of the leg and rotate the thigh outward. It can flex the lower leg and, when it is flexed, rotate it inward. Together with the iliotibial band (F) on the outside of the thigh, it stabilizes the knee in walking.
The downward wedge (G) formed between the lower border of the sartorius and the adductor group (C) is counterbalanced vertically by the dimpled upward triangle (H) that the sartorius forms with the tensor fasciae latae (I). Out of this depression arises the mass of the rectus femoris (E) of the quadriceps group.
The terminology of anatomy seems complex, but is meaningful. The vague terms like “hip” and “knee” used by the average person tell us little of what bone and muscle do, how they are shaped, or how dynamically nature has interrelated their forms. The language of the artist must be far more specific.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
STUDY OF THE LOWER HALF OF A NUDE MAN FACING FRONT
black chalk
7 1/2″ × 5 1/2″ (190 × 139 mm)
Reproduced by gracious permission of Her Majesty the Queen
Royal Library, Windsor
Quadriceps
Here Titian might have been observing how the movements of the lower limbs affect the forms of the quadriceps (or the extensor group) at the front of the thigh.
Three of the four muscles in the quadriceps are emphasized in the nearly extended leg of Titian’s model. The rectus femoris (A) is the only member that crosses the hip joint, extending from the pelvis above to the patella (B), where it connects to the tibia. Thus the rectus femoris can flex the thigh, as well as assist the other quadriceps in extending the lower leg. The rectus femoris (A) follows the direction of the femur (or thigh bone), and Titian has indicated the longitudinal furrow (C) at the center of the muscle, from which its fibers move outward and downward. At about its lower quarter, the rectus muscle turns into the flat (D) tendon that can be traced downward to the patella. At the sides of the rectus, the vastus internus (E) bulges low on the inside, and the vastus externus (F) creates a smaller bulge higher on the outside. The deeper vastus intermedius (G), which originates with the two other vasti muscles in the femur, projects very slightly below the tendon of the vastus externus (F).
From its connection in the iliotibial band (H) at the side, Richer’s band (I) of fascia contours over the front of the t
high, paralleling the angle made by the base of the bulges of the vastus internus (E) and externus (F). Richer’s band makes only a slight change in the front of the thigh, compared to the deep depression made by the sartorius (J) at the inside.
Titian (1477/90-1576)
STUDIES OF LEGS
charcoal on blue paper
16 1/4″ × 10″ (411 × 252 mm)
Uffizi, Florence
Adductor Group
Michelangelo’s study of a leg gives us a clear view of the relative position of the wedge of the adductor group (A), between the quadriceps group (B) of the thigh in front and the hamstring group in the back of the thigh. The adductor group fills the area known as the femoral triangle (or hollow of the thigh) formed by the sartorius (C), the fold of the groin that underlies Poupart’s ligament (D), and the inner side of the thigh (E). The thin, straplike gracilis (F) traverses the edge of this area and runs down the inner thigh, going behind the medial epicondyle (G) of the femur to insert in the lower leg.
It is interesting to note that Michelangelo’s line (H) points to the joint of the knee. Just below this, the tendon of the gracilis (F), the farthest reaching member of the adductor group, joins the tendons of the semitendinosus and the sartorius in the mass called the “goose foot” (I). This mass covers the surface of the tibia at the inner knee, as the muscles move together to their insertion near the crest of the tibia.
Michelangelo has treated the adductor group as a mass, from the outer gracilis (F) to the slight plane change at the side of the adductor longus (J) and the adjacent pectineus (K). The adductor brevis and the adductor magnus muscle beneath form the floor of the adductor group. Together with the iliopsoas (L), made up of two flexors of the thigh, they fill out the inner corner of the femoral triangle.