Anatomy Lessons From the Great Masters
Page 4
The members of the football-like mass of the adductor group help flex your leg when you step into the stirrup to ride horseback, hold your thighs inward against the horse (in adduction) as you ride, and contribute to the inward rotation of your thighs and legs.
Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564)
STUDY OF THE LEGS OF A NUDE MAN
black chalk
Library of Christchurch, Oxford
Hamstring Group
Like all of the great masters, Leonardo sought to understand the universal laws of design in the structure and functions of the human body. He constantly observed and compared, and his drawings are a key to his speculations and discoveries.
In Leonardo’s time, warriors often disabled an opponent by the cut of a sword across the back of the knee in the area of the ham, or popliteal fossa (A), cutting the tendons. This practice was often extended to the punishment of criminals, hence the term, to “hamstring” one’s opponent.
If you are sitting in a chair, you can reach down and feel the tendons of your hamstrings, the stout cord of the biceps (B) on the outside, and the combined tendons of the semitendinosus and semimembranosus (C) on the inside of your knee. When you bend over and try to touch your toes, you can feel the taut hamstrings at the back of your thigh. The powerful gluteus maximus muscle (D), together with these hamstrings, brings you erect again by drawing your pelvis backward.
The dog’s leg in Leonardo’s sheet of studies is drawn upright for comparison with a man’s leg. But we know that because of the underdevelopment of its gluteus maximus, a dog could not maintain such a position for long.
Leonardo has massed the semimembranosus (E) and the semitendinosus (F) of the inner hamstrings with the biceps (G), or the outer hamstring. The groove between the first two and the last would show on a flayed figure, but not on the model. Leonardo has emphasized the tendinous slip of the combined long and short heads of the biceps (B) that inserts into the head of the fibula (H). The mass of the vastus externus (I), together with the long, thin border of the iliotibial band (J) creates the outline of the outer thigh in the back view.
By their attachments above in the ischium of the pelvis, and below in the tibia and fibula, the hamstring muscles link the bones of the lower leg to the pelvis. At the back of the knee, they also help to form the upper sides of the popliteal space.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
STUDIES OF HUMAN LEGS AND THE BONES OF THE LEG IN MAN AND DOG
pen and ink
11 1/4″ × 8 1/8″ (285 × 205 mm)
Reproduced by gracious permission of Her Majesty the Queen Royal Library, Windsor
3
THE KNEE
AND
LOWER LEG
Knee, Anterior Aspect
While the general shape and outline of the thigh is created largely by the muscles that surround it, the shape of the knee is largely formed by the underlying bones. This weight-bearing hinge joint, the knee, is strengthened by the massive inner and outer condyles of the femur bone of the thigh. The femur’s rockerlike condyles roll and glide on the head of the tibia bone, below. The joint is supported on all sides by powerful tendons and ligaments. When drawing the knee, remember that it is low on the inside, high on the outside, narrow in front, and wide behind.
Above the knee, there are the quadriceps muscles. Made up of the higher mass of the vastus externus (A) and the lower bulge of the vastus internus (B), with the rectus femoris (C) in between and the vastus intermedius beneath, they all point the eye down to the knee.
Below, the hamstrings grip the knee, tonglike, from the sides. The tendon of the biceps (D) creates an almost vertical line as it moves down to the head of the fibula (E). At the inside (F), there is the straplike sartorius, the gracilis, and the semitendinosus, known collectively as the tripod muscles, that all originate in the pelvis. Together they create a long, low convex curve over the bulge of the internal condyle of the femur bone, at the knee. This line overlaps the gastrocnemius (G) or the calf muscle, behind, and goes on to the common insertion on the inner side of the tibia at the level of the kneeling point (H).
With the leg on this muscular subject extended, the patella or kneecap (I) is at its most obvious position. This flat, irregular, bony triangle is held in place by the quadriceps tendon (J) above and the patella ligament (K) below. The base of the patella in the relaxed leg is level with the knee joint.
If you think of the leg as a series of spirals alternating around a bony central axis, you can then see that the knee, where bone meets flesh, provides an interval of rest or transition. It is a visual breathing space, carrying the flow of line harmoniously from thigh to lower leg.
Pietro Faccini (1562-1602)
STANDING NUDE, FRONT VIEW, BENDING FORWARD
black chalk on gray paper
Teyler Museum, Haarlem
Knee, Posterior Aspect
The legs of Leonardo’s model are extended, and the popliteal space (A) or ham at the back of the knee appears as a full, slightly rounded form. Beneath this mound, the large ends of the femur bone of the thigh and the tibia of the lower leg face each other like clenched fists, their large condyles pressing backward against the contents of the popliteal space.
When the knee is flexed, the condyle of the femur slides forward on the head of the tibia, and the mound of the popliteal space (A) becomes a hollow that, upon closer examination, proves to be somewhat of a lozenge or diamond shape. This area is enclosed on the outside by the cord-like tendons of the biceps (B). on the inside by the semimembranosus (C), and below, by the two heads of the gastrocnemius or calf muscle (D).
Throughout the body, you must look for furrows that clue you to the edges of bone, muscle, and tendon. In this extended leg, the popliteal space forms a “U” shape, with the tendons of the biceps (B) and the semitendinosus (E) of the hamstring group on either side, and the curved line (F) of the horizontal flexion fold at the upper limit of the gastrocnemius (D).
The muscles that act at the knee joint are principally the extensors (or quadriceps) in the front of the thigh, the flexors (the hamstrings in the back of the leg), and the sartorius and gracilis at the inside of the thigh.
The knee is wider in the female than in the male, and the mound of the popliteal space behind the kneecap is fuller. The muscular fibers surrounding the female knee also tend to be longer and lower, making the contours less irregular and more curved.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
NUDE MAN STANDING, BACK TO SPECTATOR
red chalk
10 5/8″ × 6 5/16″ (270 × 160 mm)
Reproduced by gracious permission of Her Majesty the Queen
Royal Library, Windsor
Knee, Lateral Aspect
In his depiction of Adam and Eve, Rembrandt contrasts the bony male knee with the long soft curves about the female knee. He was aware that in flexion of the lower leg, the patella (A) sinks deeply into the bony hollow at the base of the femur. The front of the knee is formed by the condyle of the femur (B). The straight edge of the patella ligament (C) goes to the kneeling point (D) of the tibia bone below.
Throughout this etching, Rembrandt rhythmically changes the direction, size, and degree of curvature of his contoured hatchings in order to hint at the anatomical divisions and planes of the knee and the surrounding area. His anatomical knowledge made him intimately familiar with the landmarks surrounding the knee: the lateral condyle of the tibia (E); the head of the fibula (F); the long line of the iliotibial band (G) passing above the head of the fibula enroute to the tibia at the front; the vastus externus above (H) and below (I); the biceps (J); the gastocnemius (K) and soleus (L); the very vertical peroneus longus (M) and the massing of lines across the extensor digitorum longus (N) to the tibialis anterior (O).
The extended legs stand parallel to each other in the front view but the thighs incline inward. Because the pelvis is wider in the female, the slant of the femur bone is more pronounced, though only slightly so here. However,
individuals vary greatly. You may occasionally observe a model on which this slant is exaggerated. This is called “knock-kneed,” the opposite of “bow-legged.”
Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669)
ADAM AND EVE
etching
6 1/2″ × 4 1/2″ (165 × 114 mm)
British Museum, London
Knee, Medial Aspect
Prud’hon has placed his dominant plane break on the inner edge of the vastus internus (A) as it moves low on the leg over the spool-like medial condyle of the femur, to the border of the patella (B). He carries the massing of form down and over the bulge of the sartorius and gracilis at the medial condyle of the tibia (C). The patella (D) is indicated above by a slight recession and change of direction, and below (E) by the shaded area where the knee narrows at the patella strap above the kneeling point (F).
Pierre-Paul Prud’hon (1758-1823)
SEATED FEMALE NUDE
black and white chalk
22″ × 15″ (559 × 381 mm)
Bequest of Walter C. Baker
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Lower Leg, Anterior Aspect
In Signorelli’s drawing, we can trace the tibia or shin bone by the long line curving from the kneeling point (A) to the internal malleolus (B) at the ankle. In the lower leg, the tibia is defined by the long highlight (C) that follows the axis of the conelike cylinder of the leg.
The smaller of the two leg bones—the long, thin fibula—is hidden by muscles and visible to the eye only at the side of the knee (D) and at the outer ankle (E).
Signorelli’s long oblique hatchings mass the larger form of the leg. The detail of muscle is subtly suggested in several ways: by the variation in the outlines of the soleus (F) and peroneus longus (G) on the outside; by the changing sizes of the gastrocnemius (H), soleus (I), and flexor digitorum longus (J) on the inside; by linear overlapping (K); and by minor value changes (L) at the lines between the functions. The extensor digitorum longus (M) of the lower leg moves across the front of the ankle, extending the four outer toes and drawing back the foot.
The muscular portion of the tibialis anterior is massed along the upper and outer edge of the tibia (N). Where its lower tendinous portion crosses the ankle, the deep accent (O) tells us that the model’s foot is in flexion, or turned upward, as contrasted to the slightly extended or downward position of his other foot (P).
Luca Signorelli (c. 1441/50-1523)
HERCULES AND ANTAEUS
11 3/16″ × 6 1/2″ (283 × 163 mm)
chalk
Reproduced by gracious permission of Her Majesty the Queen
Royal Library, Windsor
Lower Leg, Posterior Aspect
One of the ways of getting more unity and balance into a drawing is by taking advantage of the natural curves in anatomical structure. In nature, form follows function. The airfoil-like curves of fish and bird give impetus (lift) to their flight. The alternating curves of our bodies still reflect our common ancestry with them. In this drawing, Signorelli observes the rhythmical alternation and balance of large and small curves along his outline of the lower limbs and from side to side.
The contour line of the external line of the thigh (A) projects across the top of the popliteal space (B) and is linked to the counterbalancing movement of the outline of the medial head of the gastrocnemius (C) on the inside, and then back again to the lateral malleolus (D) or outer ankle.
At the inside of the thigh, the outline of the gracilis (E) projects down across the knee, along the tendon of the biceps (F) into the outside contour line of the calf, created by the soleus (G), and back again to the inner ankle (H) and around the calcaneus or heel bone (I).
Look for these outer and inner lines of continuity throughout the body, where they are found on both large and small scale. Once observed, they can be emphasized for greater balance and unity throughout your drawing.
Luca Signorelli (c. 1441/50-1523)
NUDE SEEN FROM BEHIND WITH LEGS APART
black chalk and colored wash
Musée Bonnat, Bayonne
Lower Leg, Lateral Aspect
The leg on the right is massed along the edge of the peroneus longus (A). The tibialis anterior (B) is bathed in light, and the overlap of the patella strap at the kneeling point (C) suggests the front edge of the tibia bone.
Zuccaro’s figure is walking energetically. The leg on the right is still stretched out, its heel raised in the plantar-flexed position, a push-off position initiated by the still-bulging gastrocnemius (D) and soleus (E) of the calf group. The knee is slightly flexed and the leg is about to swing forward. The pelvis has tilted downward on the far side to accommodate the forward step of the leg on the left. This momentum has carried the center of gravity of the body beyond the support of the leg on the right, but imbalance of the body has been checked by the heel strike of the forward foot on the left.
The contractions of the dorsiflexors of the foot in the forward leg, most visible in the outline of the tibialis anterior (F), provide a controlled approach of the plantar surface of the foot to the ground, establishing a new base of support.
The tendon of the tibialis posterior (G), by its pull on the navicular bone of the inner foot (see drawing of the foot), inverts or tilts the foot slightly inward to provide cushioning action when the foot lands. It is responsible for wearing out the side of the heel of your shoe.
Taddeo Zuccaro (1529-1566)
NUDE MALE FIGURE WITH UPRAISED ARMS
red chalk
16 3/8″ × 11 5/16″ (416 × 287 mm)
Rogers Fund, 1968
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Lower Leg, Medial Aspect
The great masters seldom displayed anatomical knowledge for its own sake in their drawings. Quite the contrary. Drawing from their vast knowledge of anatomy as from a bank or vocabulary, they would carefully select the most appropriate piece of anatomy to support the design they intended.
Raphael contrasts the lean, limp leg of the disabled figure to the firm, solidly modeled leg of the supporting figure. His knowledge of the location, size, shape, direction, and function of the tibialis anterior (A) helped him to express these contrasts.
The disabled warrior’s weak tibialis anterior muscle (A) blends with the mass of the peroneal group, leaving the anterior edge of the tibia as a stark line. The furrows of the patella (B) and the surrounding knee are exaggerated and help intensify the long straight lines and the emaciated look of the quadriceps (C) and of the upper part of the figure itself.
In contrast, strong curved lines dominate the supporting figure. His muscles are firm and round. Raphael masses the form along the edge of the vastus externus (D) and at the side of this patella (B) on this lower figure. Because Raphael was aware that as the foot bends backward, the swelling tibialis anterior muscle on the supporting figure (A) slightly overlaps the upper edge of the tibia, he softened the modeling there. Below the mid-leg, where the muscle turns to a tendon, he rhythmically picks up its edge (E), but he softens it again at the ankle, where it forms a flat plane (F) with the tendon of the extensor longus digitorum.
On the inner leg, the edge of the plane break is lost and found. His edge moves from the adductors (G) through the vastus internus (H) and the mass (I) of the sartorius, gracilis, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus muscles that flex and steady the knee, to the edge of the gastrocnemius (J) and soleus (K), and finally over the long flexor of the toes (L). Thus the alternating rhythms of long and short, hard and soft, curved and straight, are all based upon Raphael’s selection and interpretation of anatomy.
Raphael Sanzio (1483-1520)
ANEAS AND ANCHISES (STUDY FOR THE BURNING OF BURGO)
red chalk
12″ × 6 3/4″ (304 × 170 mm)
Albertina, Vienna
Lower Leg, Flexion, Lateral Aspect
This is a good example of the lower leg, shown in two stages of flexion. The leg on the right-hand side is in flexion at a right angle
. At the knee, the patella (A) which stands out clearly in extension, here is drawn into the intercondyloid notch of the femur or thigh bone. Because the femoral condyles are not quite parallel and differ in size, a slight degree of inward rotation occurs in the leg up to this mid-flexion position. The position of the patella (A) in relation to the knife edge of the tibia (B) helps express the direction of the leg and the foot.
The other leg of the model is in acute flexion. Michelangelo has massed the forms in front where the patella (A) meets the external condyle of the femur (C). The vastus intermedius (D) surfaces from under the iliotibial band (E) and the tendons of the hamstrings (F) bulge over the calf. Michelangelo places his strong plane break (G) well back on the calf. He has only lightly indicated the division between the calf group (H)—sometimes called triceps surae—and the peroneal group (I). This is really a line between functions and, as such, its values are kept lighter than the light of the large dark areas.
Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564)
TORSO OF SEATED MAN
black chalk
7 3/4″ × 9 5/8″ (188 × 245 mm)
British Museum, London
Lower Leg, Flexion, Medial Aspect