Anatomy Lessons From the Great Masters
Page 10
A small, shaded area indicates the sternoclavicular fosset (F), where the clavicular portion of the sternocleidomastoideus inserts into the inner third of the clavicle. Above and behind this, a deeper depression (G), called the “salt box,” marks the area of the posterior triangle of the neck. This area is bounded in the front by the posterior border of the sternocleidomastoideus (H), in the back by the anterior edge of the trapezius (I) and below by the middle third of the clavicle (J). In the rotated and laterally inclined head, the posterior triangle is rounded out by the combined mass (K) of the three scaleni and the levator anguli scapulae that converge like the sternocleidomastoideus to the area behind the ear.
The column of the neck always curves slightly forward along with the curve of the vertebral column. This forward thrust is stronger in the female. Boucher has also softened the sharp prominence of the thyroid cartilage (L) in this female throat, but at the same time he has slightly filled out the area directly below (M) to allow for the larger thyroid gland in women.
Note how the base of the skull (N) at the back is well above the chin (O) and mental protuberance of the lower jaw. The long, graceful line of the trapezius (I) at the back of the neck, emphasizing the more flowing lines of the female, is broken up into three convex movements of varying lengths, rhythmically reflecting the influence of the underlying muscles.
François Boucher (1703-1770)
SEATED NUDE FACING RIGHT AND RECLINING ON CUSHIONS
chalk on gray paper
11 13/16″ × 15 7/16″ (300 × 392 mm)
Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
Neck, Extension
Movements of the head are usually combined. The head of Michelangelo’s model is extended upward, rotated, and slightly inclined to the right. At the back, the strong chords of the neck are assisted by the two sides of the trapezius acting together to cause extension of the neck and head.
The sternocleidomastoideus (A) contracts in the rotating of the head. This muscle is the dividing line between the two principal triangles of the neck, the almost hidden posterior triangle (B), and the anterior triangle (EDJ) at the front. The anterior triangle is defined above by the lower line of the jaw (C), in front by the imaginary center line of the neck (ED), and by the inner border of the sternocleidomastoideus (A).
The upper portion of the anterior triangle that lies under the chin (EGJ) is separated from the rest by the posterior portion of the digastric muscle (F) and the hyoid or tongue bone (G). This area is called the submaxillary or digastric triangle. A slight hollow in its center (E), marks the interval between the two bellies of the anterior digastric muscle lying over the broad mylohyoid muscle that fills this triangle.
Below the hyoid bone along the midline of the neck, a larger hollow (H) outlines the thyroid notch at the center of the thyroid cartilage or Adam’s apple.
At the side, the line of the omohyoid (I) moves down and outward from the hyoid bone, dividing the lower area of the anterior triangle into the superior (J) and inferior (K) carotid triangles. A transverse furrow separates the thyroid (H) and cricoid (L) cartilages. Below this, the masses of the thyroid gland and trachea or windpipe move down behind the pit of the neck (M). The clavicle (N) follows the upraised arm and approaches the column of the neck.
Michelangelo places his dominant plane break and strongest contrast along the edge of the most projecting part, the thyroid cartilage (H). Gradually softening this contrast, he moves his plane break downward along the throat, and upward along the anterior belly of the digastric muscle (E).
Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564)
STUDIES FOR THE CRUCIFIED HAMAN
red chalk
7 1/2″ × 10″ (191 × 254 mm)
Teyler Museum, Haarlem
Neck, Flexion
Flexion of the neck and head is principally initiated by the three scaleni muscles in the lower neck and by the two sides of the sternocleidomastoideus (A), acting in unison. At the base of the skull (B), the condyles of the occipital roll upon the surface of the atlas or first cervical vertebra, and the head moves downward. When gravity begins to influence the downward movement of the weight of the skull, the antagonistic muscles, the strong chords of the back and the trapezius (C), take over to regulate the action of gravity upon the fall of the head.
The downward flowing hair counterbalances the upward thrust of the body lines, harmonizes with the flexion movement of the head, and by near parallelism, draws attention to the face.
In the highlight of the hair, Degas strikes two oblique lines (D), one curved to give the contour of the skull, and an adjacent straight line to turn the plane. Below this, the movement is continued with three straight lines (E) marking the important plane change of the occipital protuberance at the back of the skull.
At the back of the neck (F), short convex lines break up the larger movement, suggesting the strong chords beneath the mass of the trapezius and the prominence of the seventh cervical vertebra (G) and two or three dorsal vertebrae.
The flexion and rotation of the head causes the angle of the jaw (H) to push the sternocleidomastoideus (A) against the side of the trapezius (I), creating the deep flexion folds in the neck.
Edgar Degas (1834-1917)
AFTER THE BATH
charcoal on yellow tracing paper
13 7/8″ × 10″ (352 × 254 mm)
Clark Art Institute, Williamstown
Neck, Rotation
The rotating head pulls upon the muscle and skin of the neck, causing the forms on that side to stand out firm and round (A). At the other side, the neck is crossed by oblique wrinkles between the sternocleidomastoideus (B) and the trapezius (C).
As the column of the neck curves forward, the seventh cervical vertebra (D) stands out in the midline of the back, and the forward and rotary motion is echoed in the folds of the gown.
Drapery covers like a second flesh. Its contours should harmonize with and give “clues” to the body forms over which it lies. Note how the fold at the back of the neck (E) curves, not just up to the line of the neck, but out and around the cylinder, helping to describe its form. This fold contours down over the shapes of the back in a sweeping curve that breaks up into smaller segments that converge with other curves from above and below to a common source at the vertebral column (F) in the back.
The observant artist knows that different kinds of cloth each have their individual “cluster characteristics,” just as do the different species of trees in the landscape. The particular construction of the cloth, its texture and density, determine the types of forms that it takes as it falls over the figure.
Finally, the artist concerns himself with the varied design arrangements of the lines, shapes, sizes, and directions of the material in his figure drawing. In the headpiece, Raphael creates an interesting arrangement of varied contour lines playing over the skull. But he is careful to give predominance to the band tied behind at the important plane break of the occipital protuberance (G).
Raphael Sanzio (1483-1520)
DOUBLE STUDY OF KNEELING WOMAN
black chalk
15 9/16″ × 9 7/8″ (395 × 251 mm)
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford
Neck, Lateral Inclination
Rubens has subdued the details of the neck in order to emphasize the face of his model. Lateral inclination of the head or tilting of the head to the side is usually accompanied by rotation toward the shoulder. Here this action of lateral inclination is produced by the simultaneous contraction of the extensors and flexors on the right-hand side.
At the other side of the neck, the long graceful spiral of the trapezius (A) and the upper portion of the sternocleidomastoideus (B) reflect the curve of the backbone. On the inner side, a short curved line suggests the other sternocleidomastoideus (C) bending slightly toward the posterior triangle (D) of the neck, and overlapping the area of the cast shadow, which represents the direction of the upper trapezius (E).
The larger thyroid gland of the female helps soften the protrusions
of the throat. In the fullness beneath the jaw and throughout the drawing, Rubens has emphasized the more delicate feminine qualities in his line and modeling.
Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640)
YOUNG WOMAN WITH CROSSED HANDS
black and red chalk, heightened with white
18 1/2″ × 14 1/8″ (470 × 358 mm)
Museum Boymans-van Beuningen, Rotterdam
Constructed Head
Historically, in their analysis of growth and form and in the search after harmonic mathematical relationships in the shapes of the human head and features, artists and scientists have created a variety of geometric arrangements by which to compare these forms.
The artist knows that in order to create, he must exaggerate reality. But to do this, he must have an idea of what reality is to begin with. Once familiar with the norms or standards, the variations can easily be perceived and played upon. These diverse and only generally accurate artistic canons should be no more than guides and secondary to artistic needs.
Here Dürer experiments with a block or cube, which he divides into a network of rectangular coordinates of seven units horizontally, four equal divisions vertically, with additional subdivisions for the eye and ear.
The ovoid shape of the cranium dominates Dürer’s contructed head. The facial portion of the skull lies below the brows and in front of the ears. Dürer places the high point of his skull (A) above the mastoid process (B), and the wide point (C) at about the level of the glabella of the frontal bone (D).
Note how Dürer ignores his original line (E) in order to give the cylinder of the neck the forward thrust of the spine. The depth line of the neck (F) is four-sevenths the length of the total block, and forms a right angle with the limiting line (G) of the lower face.
With the exception of his enlargement of the area between the hairline (H) or widow’s peak, and the crown (I), Dürer’s breakup follows the traditional three equal divisions between hairline (H) and brow (J), brow to base of nose (K), and base of nose to base of chin (L).
Note how the top of the brow (J) and the base of the nose (K) are horizontally coincident or level with the top and bottom of the ear, and how the front of the eye lines up with the back of the nose.
Had the drawing progressed further in detail, other relationships would have become evident. But it is clear that the artist knows that one secret of likeness lies in comparisons made possible by the use of a structural system such as this one.
Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528)
CONSTRUCTED HEAD OF A MAN IN PROFILE
pen and brown and red inks
9 9/16″ × 7 1/2″ (243 × 189 mm)
Pierpont Morgan Library, New York
Head, Anterior Aspect
If you want to learn to draw good heads, you must learn to draw good skulls. This drawing by Baldung shows how the head in old age provides a good subject for study of the bony scaffolding upon which the head is based. The effects of time and gravity upon the skin tissues render the facial muscles more obvious and the planes of the face easier to place.
The facial muscles differ from most muscles in that instead of moving one bone upon another, they mostly move the skin. While they may have some attachment to the bones of the face, their insertions are into the skin. The fibers of the muscles of the face tend to converge toward the oral region, the area of the mouth.
Observation shows us that wrinkles form at about right angles to the direction of the muscles that cause them. The prominent nasolabial furrow (A), which separates the wing of the nose from the cheek, forms in a direction contrary to the buccinator (B), zygomatic minor (C), and levator labii superioris (D) muscles.
The horizontal furrows (E) of the frontal eminence are at tight angles to the vertical occipitofrontalis muscle (F). The furrows (E) and the form of the eyebrows (G) below reveal the shape and values of the frontal eminences (H) and the superciliary eminences (I) of the skull beneath. Above this, Baldung places the plane break of the forehead (J), which is broken at the side by the superficial temporal vein (K) commonly seen in the aged.
The infrapalpebraral furrow (L) spirals down along the edge of the “tear bag” (M), extending down to the infraorbital region (N), over the plane break on the malar (O), and down the front of the masseter (P) muscles.
Furrows move like rivers through valleys in the aged faces in master drawings and in the elderly around us. Tracing their course can provide profitable insights into the form and function of the muscles and bones of the face.
Hans Baidung (1484-1545)
HEAD OF SATURN
black chalk
Albertina, Vienna
Head, Lateral Aspect
The superficial muscles of the face are called the muscles of facial expression. Besides influencing our expressions, they also perform major functions such as closing the eyelids, opening and closing the lips, and auxiliary functions during eating and speaking.
The facial muscles greatly vary in size, shape, and strength. They are not always easily distinguishable, as they sometimes exchange their fiber bundles, and they are not all located on a superficial level. They are sometimes grouped in relation to the openings which they modify, such as the orbit of the eye, the nasal aperture, and the mouth. Again, they can be placed by facial region: orbital (A), supraorbital (B), infraorbital (C), nasal (D), zygomatic (E), temporal (F), auricular (G), parotid-masseteric (H), buccal (I), oral (J), and mental (K).
Seeing muscles in terms of similarity in shape—such as the circular orbicularis palpebrarum surrounding the eye, and the orbicularis oris surrounding the mouth—may help you to remember them. In the mental or chin region, it is valuable to contrast the shapes and functions of the depressor anguli oris or triangularis (L), which lowers the corner of the mouth, with the square muscle of the lower lip or the depressor labii inferioris (M), which causes the lip to protrude when you pout.
Fouquet’s heavy-set model is middle-aged, so his wrinkles are not emphasized. Nevertheless, in order to create plane change, the nasolabial (N) and the mentilabial (O) furrows are almost always needed. The “commissural” furrow (P) at the angle of the mouth and the vertical frown line (Q) also help to break the horizontal direction of the adjacent furrows and add a note of seriousness to the face.
Jean Fouquet (1415-1481)
PORTRAIT OF AN ECCLESIASTIC
silverpoint on paper, black chalk.
7 11/16″ × 5 5/16″ (195 × 135 mm)
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
The Eye
At the halfway point of the head, the eye sits well within the orbital cavity of the skull. It is protected above by the supercilliary eminence (A) and by the external angular process (B) of the frontal bone. The tear bag of the lower lid (C) lies along the infraorbital margin (D) of the malar or zygomatic bone. Note that the outer corner of the eye (E) sits higher and further back than the inner corner. The eyebrow (F) rides the upper rim of the orbit and the line fades in the highlight as it rises over the external angular process.
The layman tends to see a person in terms of the details of their features. The artist, on the other hand, thinks in terms of the underlying structure of the skull so that the features are positioned correctly on the skull and in relation to each other. This will insure a good foundation for both likeness and perspective.
Dürer treated the lids as ribbons of flesh moving over the sphere of the eye and he made certain that the upper lid just cleared the pupil. The curve of this lid follows the shape of the eyeball to its highest point (G) just above the black spot of the iris that is raised by the transparent mound of the cornea. This upper lid is usually drenched in shadow by the mass above. But since it is an up plane, which normally catches the light, the artist either minimizes this cast shadow, as Dürer did, or eliminates it entirely.
Two little, wet highlights in the dark pupil of the near eye reflect multiple light sources. A dark accent in the iris where it meets the sclera or “white of the eye” (H) gives the gradation of value
in the iris, as well as the illusion of the mound of the cornea lying over it.
The near eye is spherical in shape and the little highlights in the iris are side by side horizontally. In the distant eye, the lower lid (I) curves sharply behind the eyeball, and both the sphere of the iris and the highlight within it become ellipses as they move into perspective.
Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528)
PORTRAIT OF HIS MOTHER
charcoal
16 5/8″ × 12″ (421 × 303 mm)
Staatliche Museen, Berlin
The Nose
The landmarks of the nose are easily defined in the time-worn face of Dürer’s line and wash drawing. In studying the nose, the artist must first learn something of its basic structure and its parts. He must then examine and compare the sizes, shapes, directions, and positional relationships of these parts. Finally, he can give form and individuality to these parts in his drawing by the way in which he assembles and designs these elements.
The form of the nose depends on the size and shape of the nasal bones and the nasal cartilage. The bony pyramid of the nasal bone (A) runs from the root of the nose (B) just below the glabella (C) to about mid-nose. Dürer clues us to its end by angling it slightly (D) where the bone turns to cartilage. The line moves inward to form half of the septal angle (E) at the midline of the nose. The lower lateral, comma, or alar cartilage (F) curves from behind, creating the wings or alae (G) and the central bulb (H), and then curves over the tip or dome (I), folding back upon itself and helping to form the inner nostril (J). Dürer marks the cleft at the meeting of the two halves of this cartilage by a short line (K).