Anatomy Lessons From the Great Masters
Page 11
The septal cartilage that divides the nasal passage under the tip of the nose is not visible on this lowered head, and the curve of the reflected light (L) on the nasal wing is our only indication of the nostrils. Dürer breaks the plane at the tip of the nose (M), on the wing or ala (G), and at the side of the nasal bone (N), where a transitional halftone (O) eases us into the highlight (P).
The horizontal furrow (Q) at the root of the nose forms at right angles to the vertical pyramidalis nasi or procerus muscle (R) at the sides of the bridge of the nose. The compressor nasi (S) lies on either side of the upper lateral cartilage. Tiny dilator and depressor muscles on the wing of the nose also contribute to the form. They become prominent during times of great exertion and in expressions of strong emotions.
Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528)
STUDY FOR SAINT JEROME (PORTRAIT OF A MAN OF NINETY-THREE)
brush and black ink, heightened with white, on gray violet tinted paper
16 1/2″ × 11 1/8″ (420 × 282 mm)
Albertina, Vienna
The Mouth
The oral region includes the mouth, the teeth, and the tongue. The obicularis oris muscle (A) circles the mouth, creating the thickness of the lips. The outer surface of the lips (B), called the red margin or vermillion zone, varies greatly in individuals. It is generally thicker at the middle tubercle of the upper lip (C), which forms the central section of the lip. Both lips taper to meet the corner or angle of the mouth (D).
The upper lip extends to the base of the nose, out to the nasolabial furrow (E) at the edge of the buccal region of the cheeks (F), and down to the opening of the mouth. The line of this opening and the mass of the upper lip form a cupid’s bow, a shape that curves around the cylinder of the mouth following the curved form of the teeth. If you divide the distance between the base of the nose and the base of the mental eminence or chin (G) into three parts, you will note that di Credi has placed the slit of the mouth at the upper third division.
The highlight (H) runs along the rim of the upper lip on the long, thin, light area called the new skin. It curves down at the center to accentuate the shallow vertical groove of the philtrum (H), the groove above the cupid’s bow. In the lower lip, the highlights in the top plane follow the contour of the skin creases. Small highlights (I) at either end mark its outer limit at the angle of the mouth (D), and a dark accent (J) below shows the down plane where the lower lip meets the mentilabial furrow, the groove between the chin and lip area.
The central fibers of the obicularis oris (A) close and compress the mouth, and its outer fibers project the lips forward, as in pouting. Superficial and deep muscles converge upon the obicularis oris from all sides to raise, lower, and expand the lips, and to contribute significantly to the range of facial expressions.
Lorenzo di Credi (c. 1458-1537)
HEAD OF A YOUNG MAN
black chalk and ink on pink paper
7 1/8″ × 5 3/8″ (180 × 138 mm)
Museum Boymans-van Beuningen, Rotterdam
The Ear
This page of features delicately drawn by Michelangelo provides a good example of the auricle or external ear. The ear is connected to the skull by ligaments and muscles and consists of cartilage shaped for the collection of sound waves. Seen in profile, it lies behind the center-line of the head, behind and above the ramus or vertical portion of the jawbone, and above the mastoid process of the temporal bone of the skull.
The curved outer rim of the ear is called the helix (A). Inside this is the broader, curved ridge of the antihelix (B). In its upper and forward portion, the antihelix forms two separate ridges, called the crura (C), which create a small triangular fossa or depression (D).
Michelangelo places a large area of darks in the deep cavity of the lower ear, called the concha (E), that lies in from the lower portion of the antihelix (B). This area is bounded in the front by the small prominence of the tragus (F). The tragus, from which grow fine filtering hairs, overhangs the small black area that marks the opening of the auditory canal (G), leading to the inner ear. Another small tubercle, the antitragus (H), is the cartilage that sits opposite the tragus; the two are separated by the intertragic notch (I). Below this notch lies the soft oval form of the lobe (J).
The auricular muscles lie above, in front, and behind the ear, and help maintain it in its position on the skull, but otherwise are of little use to artists. Michelangelo has placed a slight angle in the long curve of the helix at the slight rise of the Darwinian tubercle (K). This evolutionary leftover represents the extreme point of the very movable ear that we can still observe in animals such as the horse.
Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564)
SKETCHES OF HEADS AND FEATURES
pen and ink
8 1/4″ × 10″ (206 × 255 mm)
Kunsthalle, Hamburg
Emotions: High Spirits to Laughter
In order to master the finer gradations of human expressions, a careful study of the muscles of the face is of great importance. It is helpful to examine Leonardo’s five heads, which suggest a graduated series of emotions ranging from a pleased countenance, through grinning and smiling, to violent laughter.
The man with the bald head, which is crowned with oak leaves, gives the appearance of self-satisfaction. The head is upright with no inclination and the central fibers of the orbicularis oris (A) compress the lips firmly. The strong contrast between the pupil and the iris give the eye the bright sparkle of a pleased or bemused state of mind and the “crow’s feet” (B) at the corner of the eye suggest his tendency to smile frequently.
The head on the lower right exhibits a stubborn grin activated by the risorius muscle (C), with little expression about the eyes. It is a short step between this expression and that of the grinning woman at the extreme left. Here the risorius (C) together with the zygomatic major (D) and the zygomatic minor (E) muscles pull the lips back and upward. This deepens the nasolabial furrow (F) and, with the orbicularis palpebrarum (also called the orbicularis oculi) muscle surrounding the eye, causes wrinkles to form at the corners of the eye (G).
The figure in the background at the upper right suggests a false smile. The angles of his mouth are spread by the risorius (C) as in a very wide grin. In a true smile, the action of the two zygomatic muscles (H) and the lower portion of the orbicularis palpebrarum muscle (I) would have raised the nasolabial furrow (F) much higher, causing crow’s feet to form at the corners of the eyes. Above all, the action of the corrugator muscle (J), causing a vertical frown crease, reveals the falseness of the smile. The corrugator never acts under the influence of joy.
At the end of the sequence, the figure on the upper left is in a state of violent laughter. His head is thrown back, his mouth is opened to its widest point, and his upper lip is raised in a grin that exposes his teeth.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
GROUP OF FIVE GROTESQUE HEADS
pen and ink
10 1/4″ × 8 1/2″ (260 × 215 mm)
Reproduced by gracious permission of Her Majesty the Queen
Royal Library, Windsor
Emotions: Contempt to Disgust
The expressions of contempt, scorn, disdain, and disgust are expressed in many variations of facial movements, as well as by gestures of the head and limbs that represent rejection of something or someone.
Poussin depicts himself wearing a strong expression of disgust. Contempt, scorn, disdain, and disgust are merely variations in intensity of related emotions, since their combinations of muscular movements are similar. The most common means of expressing contempt is by movements about the nose and mouth.
In Poussin’s drawing, there is a slight lifting of the nose by the pyramidalis nasi or procerus (A) and the levator labii superioris alaeque nasi (B), causing the wrinkle that forms at the root of the nose. This is usually accompanied by a slight, snarling, upward movement of the upper lip with the assistance of the caninus (C), as if to display the canine tooth. In the expression of disgust, the nose is
slightly constricted by the depressor alae nasi (D) which partly closes the opening, as if to exclude an offensive odor.
The angle of the mouth is moved downward in displeasure by the action of the depressor anguli oris (E). The zygomaticus major (F) pulls the upper lip and cheek backward and up, deepening the nasolabial furrow (G).
The skin of the forehead is drawn downward and wrinkled by the frontalis (H) and the corrugators (I) of both sides, adding to the frowning appearance.
The eyes stare contemptuously ahead, and the emphasis on one sternocleidomastoideus (J) indicates that the head has just turned to direct the gaze at the object of dislike.
Nicholas Poussin (1594-1665)
SELF-PORTRAIT
chalk
British Museum, London
Emotions: Attention to Horror
Most artists have observed the transformations of the features of the face as the expressions graduate from sudden attention to surprise, admiration, astonishment, fear, and finally, to horror. In Pontormo’s study, the subject is at the attention stage. The brows are strongly raised by the occipito-frontalis muscle (A) to allow the eyes to rapidly open wide in order to quickly perceive the cause of attention.
The mouth of Pontormo’s subject has not opened as it would in astonishment, but is compressed as in thought. This facial gesture is reinforced by the vertical frown line (B) suggesting the action of the corrugator supercilii (C), the muscle of reflection.
The two wisps of hair (D) that echo the curves of the brow and eye and draw attention to the ear suggest that the model is listening intently to an unidentified sound. Our interest in this area is further reinforced by the nearly parallel lines of these two spirals of hair.
In fear, the chief play of muscles is seen in the areas of the eyes and the mouth. As attention turns to fear, the jaw drops, the mouth opens, the eyes widen, and the pupils dilate.
As fear turns to horror, the platysma myoides muscle, which spreads over the surface of the side of the neck from mouth to shoulder, is strongly contracted. This further draws down the angles of the mouth and produces deep oblique wrinkles in the neck.
Jacopo Pontormo (1494-1556)
STUDY OF A PORTRAIT OF PIERO DE’ MEDICI
red chalk
6 3/16″ × 7 13/16″ (157 × 198 mm) Uffizi, Florence
Emotions: Reflection to Grief
The corrugator supercilii (A) is the muscle of troubled reflection. In Bellini’s old man, by its contraction, this muscle “knits” the eyebrows by drawing them inward. It helps convey the impression of deep thought, as well as some difficulty or disturbance to the tranquil state of mind.
The model’s slightly opened mouth suggests an element of pain, exhaustion, and resignation. The despair of long suffering expresses itself in actions opposite to those that produce laughter. There is a relaxation, not only of the muscles of the face, but of the whole body. The jaw drops, the mouth opens, and the angle of the mouth (B) droops downward. There is a general sagging around the cheeks and eyes.
The familiar “crow’s feet” wrinkles (C), the wrinkles in the upper eyelid (D), and the wrinkles in the area of the frontal eminence (E) suggest frequent activity of the obicularis palpebrarum (F) that surrounds the eye and the vertical frontalis muscle (E) above.
With the increase of grief, the whole frowning brow is drawn further down by the vertically placed pyramidalis nasi (G) on either side of the nose, causing the horizontal wrinkles (H) at the root of the nose.
Giovanni Bellini (c. 1430-1516)
HEAD OF AN OLD MAN
brush on blue paper, heightened with white
10 1/4″ × 7 1/2″ (260 × 190 mm)
Reproduced by gracious permission of Her Majesty the Queen
Royal Library, Windsor
Emotions: Defiance to Rage
The rage of Michelangelo’s “Fury” is an intensification of the simple, sneerlike defiance, when a threatening canine tooth is exposed by drawing up the upper lip. The mouth of the raging “Fury” is opened wide. The lips are drawn to the sides and upward causing the deepening of the nasolabial furrow (A) and the jugal furrow (B) of the cheek bone.
One dominant vertical strand of muscular fiber (C) clues us to the contractions of the platysma muscle which covers the front and side of the neck. This muscle shows in times of rage, great fright, nausea, or disgust. The anterior portion of the platysma draws down the inferior maxillary in order to open the mouth, and it aids in drawing down the lower lip and the sides of the mouth.
The sternocleidomastoideus (D) stands out as the head is turned to face the antagonist. The swirl of the surrounding drapery both accentuates this action and harmonizes with it.
The entire upper lip is retracted by the levators (E), exposing a row of teeth, as if to bite the opponent. The upper lip and the wing of the nose move upward. The nostril is dilated by the anterior and posterior dilator naris muscles (F), permitting greater intake of air in preparation for strenuous action.
The orbicularis palpebrarum (G), the corrugator (H), and the pyramidalis nasi or procerus (I) depress and contract the brows, causing deep central furrows (J) and wrinkles over the bridge of the nose (K).
The bristling of hairs (L) associated with violent anger is caused by contraction of the frontalis muscle (M), these movements intensifying the overall agitation of the curved lines in the drawing.
Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564)
DAMNED SOUL, A FURY
black chalk
11 5/8″ × 8″ (295 × 203 mm)
Uffizi, Florence
Proportions
Many methods have been devised for measuring the human figure. The units of measurement have ranged from the length of the middle finger used by the Egyptians, to the length of the palm of the hand of the Greeks, to the eight-headed figure of Vitruvius, to the five-eyed width of the head used by Cousins, to the seven-and-a-half heads of the Canon des Ateliers advocated by Richer that is very much in use today.
In the study of proportions, the artist seeks keys to harmonic relationships in nature. The ancient Greeks applied knowledge gained in the study of the human body to the construction of the Parthenon. Like the body, the Parthenon is a harmonious unit in which the component parts function in balance with the whole, and yet deviate from absolute mathematical regularity in order to correct optical illusions.
Since individuals vary so greatly, it is impossible to lay down absolute rules on proportions. And with every movement of the body there are changes in perspective and foreshortening that also frustrate attempts to measure the body visually. So a set of rules on proportions can never be more than a guide. But organizing the body in a logical way can help to clarify relationships between its parts.
Leonardo used the seven-and-one-half-head measurement in this drawing, though he often deviated from this measurement, as did Dürer and the other great masters. He knew that the traditional measuring points of the nipple, navel, and genital organs were not fixed points, but only guides from which he could create individual modifications.
All great master drawings will show deviations from basic structure. Once the standard measurements, landmarks, memory devices and other clues have taught you to observe and compare, you can safely put them aside and follow your own creative impulses.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
MALE NUDE FACING FRONT
red chalk on red paper
9 1/4″ × 5 3/4″ (236 × 146 mm)
Reproduced by gracious permission of Her Majesty the Queen
Reproduced by gracious permission of Her Majesty the Queen
Royal Library, Windsor
9
ANATOMICAL
REFERENCE
PLATES
Anatomical plates, to be of practical use to art students in the study of anatomy, should provide clear, precise, and quick reference to important anatomical information. These fine plates from Dr. Richer’s Artistic Anatomy (translated and edited by Robert Beverly Hale) more than fill that
need. As reference material for the student of anatomy, these plates are scientifically and simply presented so as to avoid the anatomical inaccuracies and perspective distortions so often seen in anatomical illustration. It seems appropriate that, in contrast to the 100 drawings of the great masters, the style of these reference plates is subdued so as to provide accurate information without influencing the student’s personal style.
Plate 1: THE SKULL
ANTERIOR ASPECT
LATERAL ASPECT
Plate 2: THE SKULL
SUPERIOR ASPECT
POSTERIOR ASPECT
INFERIOR ASPECT, BASE OF CRANIUM
Plate 3: SKELETON OF THE TRUNK
ANTERIOR ASPECT
Plate 4: SKELETON OF THE TRUNK
POSTERIOR ASPECT
Plate 5: SKELETON OF THE TRUNK
LATERAL ASPECT