To Arms
Page 191
186 Bell, Blockade of Germany, 362, 366.
187 Riedl, Industrie Österreichs, 24–8.
188 Wegs, ‘Austrian economic mobilization’, 70–80; on war aims, see also Soutou, L’Or et le sang, 92–102; Fischer, Germany’s aims, 200–12.
189 Weber, Eagles on the crescent, 119–25.
190 Redlich, Austrian war government, 62.
191 Wegs, ‘Austrian economic mobilization’, 12–14, 34–5, 40–2; Redlich, Austrian war government, 85–6,124–7; Riedl, Industrie (Österreichs, 20–3.
192 Riedl, Industrie (Österreichs, 3–7, 47–53.
193 Egger, ‘Heeresverwaltung und Rüstungsindustrie’, 83, 85–6.
194 Egger, ‘Heeresverwaltung und Rüstungsindustrie’, 87.
195 Riedl, Industrie (Österreichs, 28–43; Redlich, Austrian war government, 117–18,51–2;März, Austrian banking, 117–19; Wegs, ‘Austrian economic mobilization’, 14–23.
196 Wegs, ‘Austrian economic mobilization’, 85–91.
197 Ibid. 182, 212; Wandruszka and Urbanitsch, Habsburgermonarchie, L 59–60.
198 Winkler, Einkommensverschiebungen, 49; Wegs, ‘Austrian economic mobilization’, 180–8.
199 Leslie, ‘Austria-Hungary’s eastern policy’, 151–2.
200 Wegs, ‘Austrian economic mobilization’, 190.
201 Wegs, ‘Austrian economic mobilization’, 178–9,185, 203–7; J. Robert Wegs, ‘Transportation: the Achilles heel of the Habsburg war effort’, in Kann et al. (eds.), Habsburg empire in World War I ; Herwig, First World War, 239.
202 Winkler, Einkommensverschiebungen, 49; Wegs, ‘Austrian economic mobilization’, 85–100, 183–4.
203 Wegs, ‘Austrian economic mobilization’, 92–100, 118–28, 136–44.
204 Wandruska and Urbanitsch, Habsburgermonarchie, i.521.
205 Schwarte, Technik in Weltkriege, 544, 548.
206 Stevenson, Armaments and the coming of war, 137–40.
207 Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 38.
208 Wegs, ‘Austrian economic mobilization’, 160;Osterreichischen Bundesministerium, (Österreich Ungarns letzter Krieg, ii. 14–16, and vi. 60–1.
209 Wegs, ‘Austrian economic mobilization’, 42–3; Wandruszka and Urbanitsch, Habsburgermonarchie, v. 447; Regele, Conrad, 521–3.
210 März, Austrian banking, 69–71,123–4,169–70.
211 Österreichischen Bundesministerium, Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, ii. 17–18.
212 Stone, Eastern front, 123;Osterreichischen Bundesministerium, Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, vi. 62, says there were 29 different types of gun in 1915.
213 Österreichischen Bundesministerium, Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, vi. 57–61; vii., Beilage 2, Tabelle 10; Krauss, Ursachen unserer Niederlage, 94–6.
214 Herwig, First World War, 13; Krauss, Ursachen unserer Niederlage, 95.
215 Österreichischen Bundesministerium, Östereich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, vii. Beilage 2, Tabelle 10; Wegs, ‘Austrian economic mobilization’, 156, 159–60; Stone, Eastern front, 123–4. Wegs’s figures, which disagree with Stone’s for late 1914, convey a more positive picture than Stone’s.
216 Österreichischen Bundesministerium, Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, vi 62–3; Herwig, First World War, 242.
217 Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 148;Österreichischen Bundesministerium, Österreich Ungarns letzter Krieg, vi. 62; Krauss, Ursachen unserer Niederlage, 94–5.
218 Ministère de la guerre, Armées françaises, xi. 71.
219 Hatry, Renault, 48–9.
220 Fontaine, French industry, 16–17.
221 Jèze and Truchy, War finance, 189; Duroselle, La France, 217–19.
222 Knauss, Kriegsfinanzierung, 14.
223 Falls, First World War, 355.
224 Duroselle, La Grande Guerre des français, 173.
225 R. Poidevin, ‘Les Relations économiques et financières’, in Guillen (ed.), La France et l’Italie, 287–8.
226 Dereymez, Cahiers d’histoire, 2 (1981), 159–61, 174–6.
227 Crouzet, Revue historique, CCLI (1974), 78.
228 Fontaine, French industry, 271–9; Birkett, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, LXXXIII (1920), 377–83; Baquet, Souvenirs, 52–3.
229 Godfrey, Capitalism at war, 13–14; McNeill, Pursuit of power, 299–300; Stone, Europe transformed, 280–2.
230 Crouzet, Revue historique, CCLI (1974), 58, 64–7, 412–14, 417; Stevenson, Armaments and the coming of war, 29–30, 37, 223–4; Baquet, Souvenirs, 37–40.
231 Baquet, Souvenirs, 51, 58,127; Gamelin, Manoeuvre et victoire, 317.
232 Duroselle, La France, 98.
233 Reboul, Mobilisation industrielle,!. 7; Hatry, Renault, 20–3; Gerd Hardach, ‘Industrial mobilization in 1914–1918: production, planning and ideology’, in Fridenson (ed.), French home front, 59–61.
234 Messimy, Mes souvenirs, 326.
235 Flood, France 1914–18, 57–63.
236 Hatry, Renault, 26–8; Godfrey, Capitalism at war, 48–50; Fridenson, Renault, 90–1, 93; Hardach, ‘Industrial mobilisation’, in Fridenson, French home front, 59–61; Miquel, Grande Guerre, 235–8; Baquet, Souvenirs, 7,18, 20, 70–1; Farrar, Principled pragmatist, 162–4; Dereymez, Cahiers d’histoire, 2 (1981), 165.
237 Baquet, Souvenirs, 44–5, 67–76; Flood, France 1914–18, 58; Menu, Revue militaire française, 149 (1933), 185–90; Ministère de la guerre, Armées françaises, xi. 203, 205, 210–12,1004–5; see also Fayolle, Carnets secrets, 120, 127, 129.
238 Schoen, Geschichte des deutschen Feuerwerkswesens, 772, 801.
239 Baquet, Souvenirs, 77–9, 92.
240 Reboul, Mobilisation industrielle, 21–7; Hatry, Renault, 26, 28–9, 42–3; Gascouin, L’Évolution de l’artillerie, 139–40; Gilbert Hatry, ‘Les Rapports governement, armée, industrie privée pendant la Première Guerre Mondiale: le cas des usines Renault’, in Canini (ed.), Les Fronts invisibles, 175–6.
241 Hardach, ‘Industrial mobilization’, in Fridenson (ed.), French home front, 63, 67.
242 Ministère de la guerre, Armées françaises, xi. 211; see generally Reboul, Mobilisation industrielle, 115–34.
243 Godfrey, Capitalism at war, 120–6, 157–76; Fontaine, French industry, 136–68; Saatmann, Parlament, Rüstung und Armee, 223–5; Baquet, Souvenirs, 89–90; Messimy, Mes souvenirs, 326–7; see also Robert O. Paxton, ‘The calcium carbide case and the decriminalization of industrial ententes in France’, 1915–26, in Fridenson (ed.), French home front, 153–80.
244 Reboul, Mobilisation industrielle, 123–8, 131–2.
245 Ibid. 24, 32–40; Menu, Revue militaire française, 149 (1933), 196; Ministère de la guerre, Armées françaises, xi. 216–17; Baquet, Souvenirs, 105–11.
246 Porch, March to the Marne, 233–45; Ripperger, Journal of Military History, LIX (1995), 599–618; Baquet, Souvenirs, 27–37; Messimy, Mes souvenirs, 84–7; Dieter Storz, ‘Die Schlacht der Zukunft’, in Michalka (ed.), Der Erste Weltkrieg, 269; Rouquerol, Le Canon, 31–3.
247 Reboul, Mobilisation industrielle, 40–56; Gascouin, L’Évolution de l’artillerie, 19–21, 27–36; Ministère de la guerre, Armées françaises, xi. 66–9, 72–3, 212–13,217–19; Menu, Revue militaire françaises, 149 (1933), 197–8, 205–7; Baquet, Souvenirs, 96–102, 118–28.
248 Linnenkohl, Vom Einzelschuss zur Feuerwalze, 198–9; Gudmundsson, On artillery, 75–6.
249 Klotz, De la guerre à la paix, 43–4; see also Ferry, Carnets secrets, 48, and Saatmann, Parlament, Rüstung und Armee, 178–9.
250 Reboul, Mobilisation industrielle, 59–65; Hatry, Renault, 48–50; Baquet, Souvenirs, 136–53.
251 Saatmann, Parlament, Rüstung und Armee, 178–203; M. Farrar, French Historical Studies, XI (1980), 577–609, esp. 595–8. For a contemporary record, see Ferry, Carnets secrets, ch. 2.
252 See e.g. the favourable remarks in Ferry, Carnets secrets, 79, 91, 97. Saatmann, Parlament, Rüstung und Armee, 182–3, 194, suggests the Senate was less easily gulled.
253 Godfrey, Capitalism at war, 181–5.
254 Saatmann, Parlament, Rüstung und Armee, 194.
255 Alain Hennebicque, ‘Albert Thomas and the war industries’, in Fridenson (ed.), French home front, 93–108; see also Becker, La France en guerre, 54–6.
256 See Hardach, ‘Industrial mobilisation’, in Fridenson (ed.), French home front, 78–80.
257 Hatry, ‘Les Rapports gouvernement, armée, industrie privée’, in Canini (ed.), Les Fronts invisibles, 173–4; Flood, France 1914–18, 65–6; Duroselle, La Grande Guerre des français, 180; Farrar, Principled pragmatist, 177–9; Dereymez, Cahiers d’histoire, 2 (1981), 157.
258 Jèze and Truchy, War finance, 119–48.
259 Reboul, Mobilisation industrielle, 158–9; Dereymez, Cahiers d’histoire, 2 (1981), 158.
260 Knauss, Kriegsfinanzierung, 51; Godfrey, Capitalism at war, 222–3.
261 Birkett, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, LXXXIII (1920), 355, 360.
262 Davis and Huttenback, Mammon and the pursuit of empire, 161; Hobson, Journal of European Economic History, XXII (1993)’ 461–506.
263 Crow, Man of push and go, 71.
264 Trebilcock, Vickers, esp. 9,21–4,123; also Clive Trebilcock, ‘The British armaments industry 1890-1914: false legend and true utility’, in Best and Wheat croft (eds.), War, economy and the military mind, 89–107.
265 Clive Trebilcock, ‘War and the failure of industrial mobilisation: 1899 to 1914’, in Winter (ed.), War and economic development, 139–64; Trebilcock, Vickers, esp. 74–80; French, British economic and strategic planning, 44–8; Stevenson, Armaments and the coming of war, 26, 29.
266 Simkins, Kitchener’s army, 279, 282, 290, 292; French, British economic and strategic planning, 139–40; also Hankey, Supreme Command, 257.
267 Ministry of Munitions, vol. I, pt. 1, 34–5.
268 Dewar, Great munitions feat, 127.
269 Ministry of Munitions, vol. I, pt. 1,14.
270 Brown, British logistics, 92–5,103.
271 Ibid. 146–50; Simkins, Kitchener’s army, 283–5; Trebilcock, ‘War and the failure of industrial mobilisation’, in Winter (ed.), War and economic development, 154–6. Trebilcock’s calculation of arrears seems to embrace all items not delivered even if they were not behind schedule.
272 Simkins, Kitchener’s army, 324; for similar points, Cassar, Kitchener, 330–60; Harvey, Collision of empires, 282; Chris Wrigley, ‘The ministry of munitions: an innovatory department’, in Burk (ed.), War and the state, 34–5; Ministry of Munitions, vol. I, pt. 1, 150; Crow, Man of push and go, 71–2.
273 Koss, Asquith, 181–2; also 171.
274 French, English Historical Review, CIII (1988), 390.
275 Scott, Army Quarterly, CXI (1981), 205–28; Adams, Arms and the wizard, 151–2; Linnenkohl, Vom Einzelschuss zur Feuerwalze, 200–4.
276 Wrigley, ‘The ministry of munitions’, in Burk (ed.), War and the state, 38.
277 Adams, Arms and the wizard, 10; French, British economic and strategic planning, 133–4; Ministry of Munitions, vol. I, pt. 1, 46–71.
278 Ministry of Munitions, vol. I, pt. 1, 93–9; Hankey, Supreme command, 309.
279 Gilbert, Lloyd George, 157.
280 Adams, Arms and the wizard, 72.
281 Ministry of Munitions, vol. I, pt. 2, 1–3. For what follows, see ibid. pt. 2, passim ; Adams, Arms and the wizard, 71–82; Grigg, Lloyd George, 216–21; Gilbert, Lloyd George, 155–8, 171–8.
282 Dewar, Great munitions feat, 48; Hughes, ‘Monstrous anger of the guns’, 66; Birkett, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, LXXXIII (1920), 373.
283 Dewar, Great munitions feat, 111; also 82, 84, 86.
284 Cassar, Asquith, 85–6; see, in general, Fraser, Canadian Journal of History, XVIII (1983), 74–9.
285 Ministry of Munitions, vol. I, pt. 1,104.
286 Ministry of Munitions, vol. I, pt. 1, pt. 3, passim ; Moulton, Life of Lord-Moulton, 179–82,271;Crow, Man of push and go, 87–106.
287 David (ed.), Inside Asquith’s cabinet, 225, also 228; see also Fraser, Canadian Journal of History, XVIII (1983), 77–9; Dewar, Great munitions feat, 31,117–18.
288 Hewins, Apologia of an imperialist, ii. 5 (diary entry of 16 October 1914).
289 Cassar, Kitchener, 346–7.
290 David (ed.), Inside Asquith’s cabinet, 250.
291 Fraser, Canadian Journal of History, XVIII (1983), 70–3.
292 Public Record Office T 170/73/6.10.15; I am grateful to Dr Martin Farr for this reference.
293 Farr, ‘McKenna’, 253.
294 Hewins, Apologia of an imperialist, ii. 37–8.
295 Ministry of Munitions, vol. I, pt. 1, 23–6, 38–42.
296 French, British strategy and war aims, 117.
297 Grigg, Lloyd George, 259–60; Gilbert, Lloyd George, 211; Adams, Arms and the wizard, 47–8; Addison, Four and a half years, i. 83, 86–7.
298 Addison, Four and a half years, L 83, 105, 115–17, 134.
299 Grieves, Geddes, 14,17; Crow, Man of push and go, 117,125.
300 Adams, Arms and the wizard, 56–69; Grigg, Lloyd George, 211–21; Ministry of Munitions, vol. III, pt. 1,1–46, 243–5; Chris Wrigley, ‘Ministry of Munitions’, in Burk (ed.), War and the state, 47–51.
301 Adams, Arms and the wizard, 91–110; Gilbert, Lloyd George, 242–50.
302 Grigg, Lloyd George, 271–3.
303 Adams, Arms and the wizard, 172.
304 Ministry of Munitions, vol. X, pt. 1, 96.
305 Scott, Vickers, 98,101.
306 Ministry of Munitions, vol. I, pt. 1, 45, and vol. X, pt. 1, 9; Dewar, Great munitions feat, 123.
307 Adams, Arms and the wizard, 164–72; Ministry of Munitions, vol. X, pt. 1, 6–27; Gilbert, Lloyd George, 224–30. Hughes, ‘Monstrous anger of the guns’, 63–4, describes ‘gun programme A’ as that designed by the War Office for an army of 20 divisions’, ‘gun programme B’ as that developed after Aubers Ridge’, and ‘gun programme C’ as issued on 8 September 1915; his running totals differ, and he says that Kitchener concluded that the final programme would require 6,876 officers and 162,328 gunners.
308 Reinharz, English Historical Review C (1985), 575–95.
309 Ministry of Munitions, vol. I, pt. 1, 32, 110–12; vol. III, pt. 1, 30–1; vol. X, pt. 4, 4–76, 127–40; Moulton, Life of Lord Moulton, 187–207, 272; McCallum, War Studies Journal, IV (1999), 70–5.
310 Ministry of Munitions, vol. X, pt. 2, 46–9, 55.
311 Ministry of Munitions, vol. X, pt. 2, 2–7; see also vol. I, pt. 1, 29–30.
312 Cassar, Kitchener, 336.
313 Bidwell and Graham, Fire-power, 98–9.
314 Terraine, Smoke and the fire, 113; Hughes, ‘The monstrous anger of the guns’, 72.
315 Falls, 36th (Ulster) Division, 68.
316 Figures from Hughes, ‘Monstrous anger of the guns’, 67–70.
317 Birkett, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, LXXXIII (1920), 355.
318 Carnegie, Munitions supply in Canada, 93; see more generally 1–93, 292–3,307–13; also Ministry of Munitions, vol. II, pt. 4, 14–18.
319 Carnegie, Munitions supply in Canada, 58,107–8.
320 Ibid. 107, 127, 133, 294, 314–15.
321 Ministry of Munitions, vol. II, pts. 5 (India) and 6 (Australia); Scott, Australia during the war, 236–48.
322 Grieves, War & Society, VII (1989), 45; Wrigley, ‘Ministry of Munitions’, in Burk (ed.), War and the state, 43–6; Harvey, Collision of empires, 293; Farr, ‘McKenna’, 254.
323 Gatrell and Harrison, Economic History Review, XLVI (1993), 430–2.
324 Keith Neilson, ‘Russia’, in Wilson, Decisions for war, 98; Pearson, Russian moderates, 10.
325 Geyer, Russian imperialism, 265.
326 Keith Neilson, ‘Russia’, in Wilson, Decisions for war, 103.
327 Gatrell, Government, industry and rearmament, 139,176–8.
328 Ibid. 288.
329 Ibid. 223, 243–52, 2
57; see also Neilson, Britain and the last Tsar, 101.
330 Gatrell, Government, industry and rearmament, 167–70, 197–8, 277–80.
331 Ibid. 199, 215–16, 226.
332 Ibid. 139, 209.