To Arms
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333 Florinsky, End of the Russian empire, 34.
334 Siegelbaum, Politics of industrial mobilization, 31.
335 Golovine, Russian army, 37.
336 Gatrell, Government, industry and rearmament, 148, 187–8, 305.
337 Siegelbaum, Politics of industrial mobilization, 21–2, 136.
338 McKean, St Petersburg, 323–4.
338 Lincoln, Passage through Armageddon, 165.
340 Siegelbaum, Politics of industrial mobilization, 148; Claus, Kriegswirtschaft Russlands, 68–70; Frantz, Russland auf dem Wege, 264.
341 Zagorsky, State control of industry, 14–15.
342 David Jones, ‘Imperial Russia’s forces at war’, in Millett and Murray (eds.), Military effectiveness, i. 270; Ferguson, Pity of war, 249–50.
343 Lincoln, Passage through Armageddon, 94, 220–6; Stone, Eastern front, 284–5.
344 Zagorsky, State control of industry, 53.
345 Ferro, Great War, 120.
346 Dewey, Historical Journal, XXVII (1984), 208; Stone, Eastern front, 285.
347 Zagorsky, State control of industry, 54–6; see also Claus, Kriegswirtschaft Russlands, 83–4, 87.
348 Zagorsky, State control of industry, 39–45, 347–8; Claus, Kriegswirtschaft Russlands, 86–91.
349 Gatrell, Government, industry and rearmament, 299.
350 D. Jones, ‘Imperial Russia’s forces at war’, in Millett and Murray (eds.), Military effectiveness, i. 267–8; Jones, Military-naval encyclopedia of Russia, ii. 154.
351 The main sources for what follows are Siegelbaum, Politics of industrial mobilization ; Roosa, ‘Russian industrialists during World War I’.
352 The chronology of these events is very confused in the published sources. That followed here is from Zagorsky, State control of industry, 82–6.
353 Suchomlinow, Erinnerungen, 419–21.
354 Knox, With the Russian army, i. 272–3; Stone, Eastern front, 162–3; Siegelbaum, Politics of industrial mobilization, 35–9.
355 Stone, Eastern front, 197–8; see also Suchomlinow, Erinnerungen, 430–7, 472–7.
356 Frantz, Russland auf dem Wege, 235–7, 246–9.
357 Siegelbaum, Politics of industrial mobilization, 69–72.
358 Pearson, Russian moderates, 44–5, 73.
359 Siegelbaum, Politics of industrial mobilization, 49–50, 58–68, 85–102.
360 Ibid. 54, 95–6,100–5.
361 Andolenko, Histoire de l’armée russe, 379.
362 Stone, Eastern front, 210.
363 Siegelbaum, Politics of industrial mobilization, 105–19; Knox, With the Russian army, 524.
364 McKean, St Petersburg, 324–6.
365 Siegelbaum, Politics of industrial mobilization, 117–19, 183–91, 210; also Gatrell, Government, industry and rearmament, 216–23.
366 Neilson, Strategy and supply, 75–6.
367 D. Jones, Military-naval encyclopedia of Russia, ii. 161.
368 See Knox, With the Russian army, 270, 317, 319; Lobanov-Rostovsky, Grinding mill, 144,160.
369 Suchomlinow, Erinnerungen, 400–1.
370 Gatrell, Government, industry and rearmament, 299; Menning, Bayonets before bullets, 255; Fuller, Strategy and power, 449.
371 Golovine, Russian army in the World War, 126–7; for different figures, see Andolenko, Histoire de l’armée russe, 379
372 Miquel, Grande guerre, 253.
373 Lobanov-Rostovsky, Grinding mill, 160.
374 Gourko, Memories, 103.
375 Gatrell, Government, industry and rearmament, 132–4, 299; Suchomlinow, Erinnerungen, 327–9; Menning, Bayonets before bullets, 231–2, 234.
376 Knox, With the Russian army, 547; also Gourko, Memories, 219–20.
377 Keith Neilson, ‘Managing the war: Britain, Russia and ad hoc government’, in Dockrill and French, Strategy and intelligence, 106–7.
378 Golovine, Russian army, 127–9.
379 Neilson, Strategy and supply, 52–3, 74–9, 87. Neilson is fundamental for what follows; see also Neilson, Slavonic and East European Review, LX (1982), 572–90; Neilson, Russia and the last Tsar, 351–6; Ministry of Munitions, vol. II, pt. 8.
380 Burk, Britain, America, 30–42; Gilbert, Lloyd George, 211–13; Ministry of Munitions, vol. II, pt. 3.
381 Nouailhat, France et États-Unis, 91–5, 241–6, 380–1.
382 Ibid. 91–2, 94.
383 Ministry of Munitions, vol. II, pt. 3, 127.
384 Burk, Britain, America, 41–2.
385 D. Jones, ‘Imperial Russia’s forces at war’, in Millett and Murray (eds.), Military effectiveness, i. 268–9.
386 Knox, With the Russian army, 276, 411, 416.
387 Nouailhat, France et États-Unis, 91–5;Jèze and Truchy, War finance, 119–21.
388 Jones, Britain’s search for Chinese co-operation, 50–1, 54–61,105–6.
389 Knox, With the Russian army, 216; Rothwell, History, LVI (1971), 39; Nish, Alliance in decline, 162.
390 Burk, Britain, America, 41.
391 Ministry of Munitions, vol. II, pt. 3, 127.
392 Reboul, Mobilisation industrielle, 133–4.
393 Petit, Finances extérieures, 28, 35–44.
394 Nouailhat, France et États-Unis, 253.
395 Roskill, Hankey, 220, 225.
396 Ministry of Munitions, vol. II, pt. 8, 20.
397 Ibid. 20; Neilson, Strategy and supply, 116.
398 Ministry of Munitions, vol. II, pt. 8, 20–3.
399 Addison, Four and a half years, i. 130.
400 Crow, Man of push and go, 131–2.
401 Neilson, Strategy and supply, 129–34.
402 Reboul, Mobilisation industrielle, 50.
403 Neilson, Strategy and supply, 172–98.
404 Gilbert, Lloyd George, 349.
405 Strachan, Journal of Strategic Studies, XXI (1998), 79–95.
1 Baudrillart, Carnets, 92.
2 Schulte, Vor dem Kriegsausbruch, 116.
3 Seton-Watson et al., War and democracy, 318.
4 Marrin, Last crusade, 98.
5 Rubampioce, crisisin consciousness, 101; also pressel, kriegspredigt, 128-30; Huber, kirche und Offentlichkeit, 171-3, 181-2.
6 Hope, German and Scandinavian protestantism, 591; Becker, Great War and the French people, 188.
7 Pressel, Kriegspredigt, 17–18; also 188–91.
8 Cork, Bitter truth, 47.
9 Verhey, ‘The “spirit”’ of 1914, 273.
10 Marrin, Last crusade, 139.
11 Guéno and Laplume, Paroles de poilus, 11.
12 Pares, Fall of the Russian monarchy, 64–5; Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 29; Zeman, Breakup of Habsburg empire, 5–6.
13 Cork, Bitter truth, 48.
14 Jahn, Patriotic culture in Russia, 24, 28.
15 Horne and Kramer, Journal of Modern History, LXVI (1994), 24.
16 Stengers, Guerres mondiales et conflicts contemporains, 179 (July 1995), 31.
17 Baudrillart, Carnets, 100.
18 The subject of atrocities and also of their relationship to propaganda will be dealt with in a subsequent volume. Trevor Wilson challenged the evidence of atrocities in Belgium used by the British, Journal of Contemporary History, XIV (1979), 369–83; John Horne and Alan Kramer are exploring the truth—see Journal of Modern History, LXVI (1994), 1–33.
19 The Auxerre window is by Edmond Socard, from a painting by Paul Louzier See also Krumeich, Jeanne d’Arc, esp. 10-12, 187-99, 216-18.
20 Geinitz, Kriegsfurcht und Kampfbereitschaft, 280, 398; Epstein, Erzberger, 101–2; Erzberger, Erlebnisse, 11–18; Pfeilschifter (ed.), Deutsche Kultur, Katholizismus und der Weltkrieg.
21 Andresen, Dryander, 313–16, 331–3, 346–8; Pressel, Kriegspredigt, 108–18.
22 Huber, Kirche und Öffentlichkeit, 145,168–9.
23 Pressel, Kriegspredigt, 35–44; Doehring, Ein feste Burg, ii. 363–5.
24 Marrin, Last crusade, 109–18.
25 Ferguson, Pity of war, 18.
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26 Pressel, Kriegspredigt, 75–6, 176, 202–4; Rubanowice, Crisis in consciousness, 102–3, 107–9.
27 Pressel, Kriegspredigt, 203.
28 Doehring, Ein feste Burg, i. 14–18; see also Andresen, Dryander, 319–20.
29 Verhey, ‘The “spirit” of 1914’, 289; see also Lange, Marneschiacht und deutsche Öffentlichkeit, 113–16.
30 Scheler, Der Genius des Krieges (first published in article form in October 1914, and as a book in 1915), 55, 86–8.
31 Martin, Times Literary Supplement, 5 Aug. 1994,11–12.
32 Hanna, Mobilization of intellect, 108–18, and for what follows 9–10.
33 Robert, Les Ouvriers, 28–30; also Milner, Dilemmas of Internationalism, 214.
34 Brocke, ‘Wissenschaft und Militarismus’, 649–64; Schwabe, Wissenschaft und Kriegsmoral, 22–4;I have not been able to consult Jürgen Ungern-Sternberg von Pürkel and Wolfgang von Ungern Sternberg, Der Aufruf an die Kulturwelt. Das Manifest der 93 und die Anfänge der Kriegspropaganda im Ersten Weltkrieg (Stuttgart, 1996).
35 Freud, ‘Thoughts for the times’, 275.
36 Hanna, Mobilization of intellect, 78–90; Brocke, ‘Wissenschaft und Militarismus’, 667–8.
37 Bergson, Meaning of war, 18–20, 29–33.
38 Hanna, Mobilization of intellect, 142–5, 155–6, 166, 174; also Raithel, Das ‘Wunder’ der inneren Einheit, 379–80.
39 Wallace, War and the image of Germany, 48.
40 Brocke, ‘Wissenschaft und Militarismus’, 670; Wallace, War and the image of Germany, 24–5.
41 Seton-Watson et al., War and democracy, 371.
42 Wallace, War and the image of Germany, 62.
43 Seton-Watson et al., War and democracy, 363–4.
44 Oxford Faculty of Modern History, Why we are at war, 115–16.
45 Gullace, American Historical Review, CII (1997), 722–3.
46 Seton-Watson et al., War and democracy, 1–2.
47 Marrin, Last crusade, 129.
48 Seton-Watson et al., War and democracy, 2.
49 Cork, Bitter truth, 54–7; also The Times Review, 14 Nov. 1992, pp. 38–9.
50 Seton-Watson et al., War and democracy, 239.
51 Grigg, Lloyd George, 216; also 161–6.
52 Marrin, Last crusade, 103.
53 Seton-Watson et al., War and democracy, 350.
54 Wallace, War and the image of Germany, 36.
55 Ibid. 38; see also 105.
56 Ferguson, Pity of war, 248.
57 Marrin, Last crusade, 108 (citing Bernhardi, Germany and the next war, 18–19, 45, 48, 79, 85–7).
58 Offer, Politics and society, XXIII (1995), 216.
59 Echevarria, War & Society, XIII (1995), 23–40.
60 Verhey, ‘The “spirit”’ of 1914, 311
61 Eksteins, Rites of spring, 89.
62 Schwarzmüller, Zwischen Kaiser und ‘Führer, 98.
63 Ringer, Decline of German mandarins, 185.
64 Sombart, Händler und Helden, 53, 61–5; Scheler, Genius des Krieges, 34–5, 94–5.
65 Lübbe, Politische Philosophie, 176–84; see, in English, Mommsen, Imperial Germany, 206–14.
66 Sombart, Händler und Helden, 74–7.
67 Chickering, Imperial Germany, 135.
68 Kruse, ‘Kriegsbegeisterung’, 85.
69 Sieferle, ‘Der deutsch-englische Gegensatz’, 159.
70 Mann, ‘Gedanken im Kriege’, 7.
71 Lübbe, Politische Philosophie, 190–1; Scheler, Genius des Krieges, 50.
72 Lübbe, Politische Philosophie, 194–201.
73 Ibid. 188.
74 Sombart, Händler und Helden, esp. 4–43; Scheler, Genius des Krieges, 25–31, 53–4; Kjellen, Politischen Probleme, 130–4.
75 Sieferle, ‘Der deutsch-englische Gegensatz’, 142.
76 Schwabe, Wissenschaft und Kriegsmoral, 27–8; Pressel, Kriegspredigt, 128–30; Raithel, Das ‘Wunder’ der inneren Einheit, 102–4, 215; Horn (ed.), Stumpf, 26–7; Kennedy, Anglo-German antagonism, does of course trace deeper roots.
77 Pressel, Kriegspredigt, 20.
78 Kjellen, Politischen Probleme, 134.
79 Rubanowice, Crisis in consciousness, 112.
80 Ringer, Decline of the German mandarins, 186; Huber, Kirche und Öffentlichkeit, 151; Schwabe, Wissenschaft und Kriegsmoral, 112.
81 Sieferle, ‘Der deutsch-englische Gegensatz’, 144.
82 Johnson, Kaiser’s chemists, 16.
83 Williamson, Helfferich, pp. v-vi, 111–14.
84 Lübbe, Politische Philosophie, 186.
85 Kruse, Krieg und nationale Integration, 70–6, 92–3,124–30.
86 Sieferle, ‘Der deutsch-englische Gegensatz’, 149–55.
87 Sheehan, German liberalism, 267–78; also Naumann, ‘Deutscher Liberalismus’, in Werke, iv. 316–20;Mai, Ende des Kaiserreichs, 33; Struve, Elites against democracy.
88 Doehring, Ein feste Burg, ii. 370.
89 Diary entry, 4 Dec. 1915, Riezler, Tagebücher, 317–18; see also 325.
90 Lübbe, Politische Philosophie, 227–30.
91 Michalka, ‘Kriegsrohstoffbewirtschaftung, Walther Rathenau, und die “kommende Wirtschaft”’, in id. Der Erste Weltkrieg, 497.
92 Ibid. 494–5; also Michalka, ‘Kriegswirtschaft und Wirtschaftskrieg’, in Bühme and Kallenberg (eds.), Deutschland und der Erste Weltkrieg, 189–90.
93 Sieferle, ‘Der deutsch-englische Gegensatz’, 153.
94 Rubanowice, Crisis in consciousness, 103.
95 Scheler, Genius des Krieges, 34, 81, 91.
96 Sieferle, ‘Der deutsch-englische Gegensatz’, 146.
97 Sombart, Händler und Helden, 84–6.
98 Ibid. 136–43.
99 Pressel, Kriegspredigt, 165.
100 Ibid. 117.
101 Rürup, ‘Der “Geist”’ von 1914, 4.
102 Lübbe, Politische Philosophie, 183.
103 Pressel, Kriegspredigt, 120.
104 Ibid. 217–19; Andresen, Dryander, 328–9, 341.
105 Sombart, Händler und Helden, 143.
106 Sieferle, ‘Der deutsch-englische Gegensatz’, 153–4, 160.
107 Scheler, Genius des Krieges, 101.
108 Brocke, ‘Wissenschaft und Militarismus’, 682–3; Ringer, Decline of the German mandarins, 193–7; Schwabe, Wissenschaft und Kriegsmoral, 24–5, 32–3, 49, 55; Huber, Kirche und Öffentlichkeit, 179.
109 Verhey, ‘The “spirit” of 1914’, 301.
110 Hartmut Zelinsky, ‘Kaiser Wilhelm II, die Werk-Idee Richard Wagners und der Weltkampf’, in Röhl (ed.), Der Ört Kaiser Wilhelms II, 303.
111 Pick, War machine, 141–2.
112 Ferguson, Pity of war, 235–6.
113 See, for Germany, Witkop, Kriegsbriefe gefallener Studenten ; for Britain, Hynes, War imagined, 119; for France, Hanna, Mobilization of intellect, 24, 211–16, and Audoin-Rouzeau, A travers leurs journaux, 203.
114 Rohkrämer, Militarismus der ‘kleinen Leute’, 178–258.
115 Rubanowice, Crisis in consciousness, 107; see also Schwabe, Wissenschaft und Kriegsmoral, 13; Ringer, Decline of the German mandarins, 187; Pressel, Kriegspredigt, 23.
116 Schwarzmüller, Zwischen Kaiser und ‘Führer’, 150.
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
List of Maps
Introduction
1. The Origins of the War
2. Willingly to War
3. The Western Front in 1914
4. The Eastern Front in 1914
5. The War in Northern Waters, 1914–1915
6. War in the Pacific, 1914–1917
7. The Dark Continent: Colonial Conflict in Sub–Saharan Africa
8. Turkey’s Entry
9. Germany’s Global Strategy