Escape From Rome

by Walter Scheidel

  energy capture and consumption, 6, 537nn7–8. See also coal

  England/Britain: alliance with Spain against France, 201; Anglo-Saxon period, 239, 312, 349, 363; bourgeoisie’s freedom and dignity in, 489–90; church’s role in, 346, 478; Civil War in, 376, 379, 578n59; cohesion and collective action in, 379, 581n110; colonization and New World trade of, 421–23, 424–27, 449; common law tradition in, 378; Commons, 350; corruption and rent-seeking in, 381; counterfactual scenario for economic rise of, 498–99; counterfactual scenario for seventeenth century in, 208–10; cultural change in, 390; domestic conflict in, 376; economic conditions (post-1500) in, 371; Enlightenment in, labeled as Industrial Enlightenment, 485; escape from Rome in, 378; fiscal-naval-mercantilist state and economic development in, 385–90; fragmentation in, 363–64, 390; ghost acreages of, 424–25, 426–27, 589n19; Glorious Revolution (1688), 379, 474; governance and politics in, 349, 350, 364–65, 377–82; immigrants coming to, 378, 486; industrialization and modernity in, 341, 359, 377–82, 389–92, 415, 428, 485, 491–95; innovation in, 388–90, 485–88, 497, 581n99; iron industry and metal products in, 388, 423, 424, 494; literacy rates and public education in, 373, 375, 477, 485–86, 492, 596n42; Luddite riots, 487; Magna Carta, 350; naval supremacy of, 385–90; Navigation Acts, 385; Netherlands and, 377; in ninth century, 155, 228; nobility rising in importance in, 239; North Sea economy of, 370–77; parliament in, 350, 376, 379–81; path to Industrial Revolution, 377–82, 491–95; post-nineteenth-century economic development in, 1, 2; productivity in, 378, 422; protectionism and, 380–81, 384–87; Reformed Church in, 478; religious tolerance in, 484; Roman empire’s end in, 363; sixteenth- and seventeenth-century rise of, 201, 203, 208, 381–82; slave trade and, 424, 425, 426, 589n17; standing army in, 239; taxes and military commitments in, 369, 379; in tenth century, 241; textile industry and trade in, 386, 415, 423–25, 491–93, 581n115, 588n10, 597n60; trade as economic engine in, 390, 493–94; urbanization in, 371, 373–74, 581n99, 597n64; war and, 366, 382–84; waterways and water use, importance of, 499–500; Whigs in, 380

  English language and writing, 312

  Enlightenment: hegemony and conservatism vs., 479–85, 594n23; Industrial Enlightenment, 485–88; polycentrism and, 473–79, 497; values of, 488–91

  Ennius, 546n57

  environmental effects. See ecology

  Epirus, 91, 116, 117, 551n30

  estates and grand councils, 349–51, 355, 496

  Etruscans, 52, 54–58, 77, 115, 116, 522, 543n8, 545n35

  Eugippius, 254

  Europe: Christianity’s ascendance in, 314–17; coastline of, 260–61; corporate organization in, 410; defined, 33, 529–30; demography as factor in developmental transformation of, 497–99; ecology, 290–94; economic conditions (post-1500) in, 371, 372; ethnic loyalty in, 330; expansionism of, 411–13; geography of, 264–66, 270; globalization and, 420–25; imperial state formation in, 9–10, 44–45, 45, 48, 542n18; marriage pattern in, 498–99, 598n81; mountains and rivers in, 261–64, 262; parliamentarianism in, 14, 350–51, 376; patterns of empire in, 12, 35–38; plain regions and natural core not part of geography of, 264–66; population of, 34–38, 35–38; post-Napoleonic (1812), 211; post-nineteenth-century economic development in, 1, 2; precondition of disappearance of empire for later exceptionalism, 14; recurrent empires, negative possible effects of, 9–11, 14; sixteenth-century rise of, 200–201; size of, 33, 34; social development (5000 BCE–2000 CE), 5; social development (500 BCE–1500 CE), 5; social development (1500–1900 CE), 7; states constituting currently, 229; steppe effect and, 290–94; taxes and credit in, 368–70, 376; unity in diversity of, 514–16; urbanization in, 373–74; war in, 367–68. See also Black Death; counterfactuals; First Great Divergence (mid-first-millennium Europe); fragmentation of power; Industrial Revolution(s); maritime exploration and expansion; polycentrism; post-Roman Europe; Roman empire; (Second) Great Divergence; transformative developmental outcomes; specific countries and kingdoms

  Fatimids, 145, 151, 302

  feudalism, 14, 181, 243, 327, 340, 346, 351, 361, 416, 496, 514, 555n41

  First Great Divergence (mid-first-millennium Europe), 219–21, 227–32; assignment of term, 231, 560n17; Chinese imperial tradition used as counterpoint to medieval and European state formation, 220; comparative scholarship and, 22, 23; culture and religion in, 307, 317; defined, 13, 530; explanation of factors, 330–34, 331; geography and, 259–70, 331, 332; Moore’s proposal of different First Great Divergence, 231–32, 561n17; revenue collection as key to power in, 232–34; serial empire reconstruction of China compared to polycentrism of Europe, 9, 12, 224, 229, 246–53, 257, 395, 411

  First Industrial Revolution. See Industrial Revolution(s)

  First Lateran Council (1123), 346

  First Punic War, 96, 99, 109, 118, 120, 549n7, 549n9, 550n13

  fiscal extraction, 63, 67, 158, 187, 232–33, 255–58, 330–34, 331, 341. See also military mobilization

  Flanders, 181, 203, 265, 350, 352, 377

  Fletcher, Joseph, 569n45

  flood control, 264, 499–500, 566n10

  Fourth Lateran Council (1215), 346

  Fowden, Garth, 21

  fragmentation of power: in Arab empire (late tenth century), 145; Bourgeois Revaluation and, 489; in Carolingian period, 161–62, 240, 555n39; in China, 396–400; development and, 337, 343, 359–60, 495–96; in East Roman restoration (sixth century), 138; Enlightenment and, 474–75, 497; exceptions proving the rule, 396–400, 538n14; fifteen centuries of, 212–15; in first-millennium-BCE Europe and East Asia, 221; in Habsburg domains, 198; in High and Late Middle Ages Europe, 228; modernity resulting from, 9, 359–60; Mongol engagement with fragmented opposition in Latin Europe, 179, 187; as overdetermined outcome for Europe, 220–21, 240, 501; overseas exploration and, 449–53, 471; resilience of state system and, 501, 502; significance of, 15, 27, 359–60; in Southeast Asia, 303; trade and, 360. See also polycentrism

  France: in alliance with Ottoman empire, 195, 196, 206; aristocracy in, 241, 365; church’s role in, 346, 347; class differences inhibiting intellectual innovations in, 487; commune movement in, 352; compared to Roman empire, 213; counterfactual scenario for seventeenth century in, 208–10, 513; French Revolution, 376; German Roman Empire and, 168; governance in, 355; integrity of ruling class in early modern period, 214; late seventeenth to early nineteenth century in, 12, 208–12; Magyar raids into (tenth century), 187, 293; military forces of late seventeenth century in, 78–79, 208; military forces of Napoleonic period in, 214; Netherlands and, 377; New World imperialism of, 426, 432; religious war in, 201; representative assemblies in, 350; taxes and military commitments in, 369; university and academy development in, 485, 488; urban development in, 345. See also Gaul

  Franks and Frankish kingdom, 12, 35, 153–61; Arab conquests and, 148, 149; aristocracy in, 213; demise of, 353; duration and scope of, 132, 134; East Roman Restoration and, 134, 137; land given in exchange for loyalty and military service in, 240–41; repulsion of Arabs and Berbers by, 512; royal governance in, 349; tax collection in, 237, 254, 565n68; weak internal governance in, 163, 214, 228, 238. See also Carolingian empire

  Frederick I (German ruler), 165–66

  Frederick II (German ruler), 166, 171, 174, 176, 178, 197, 347, 512, 541n11

  freedom, 8, 538n11

  Fronda, Michael P., 553n15

  frontier theory, 275. See also steppe effect

  Fukuyama, Francis, 539n26

  Galileo Galilei, 474

  Gaul: Arab conquests and, 139, 140; Carolingian empire and, 153; Celtic influence in, 522; East Roman restoration and, 132, 134; Habsburgs and, 198; language and writing in, 311–12, 601n39; Merovingians and, 237; Roman Empire’s conquest of, 83, 101, 198, 239; state deformation in, 234; taxation in, 234, 237, 254

  Gelasius I (pope), 315

  Gellner, Ernest, 86, 87, 553n7

  Genghis Khan (Mongol ruler), 174, 186

  Genoa, 355, 377, 430, 439, 450, 499, 509

  geographic constr
aints and differences, 259–70, 331, 332, 429, 502, 526, 565n4; coastlines, 260–61; geographic determinism debunked, 270; mountains and rivers, 261–64, 499–500, 566n6, 566n10; plain regions and natural core, 264–66; shape, isolation, and scale, 266–69. See also counterfactual scenario for overseas exploration; specific mega-regions and countries

  German empire, 164–73, 167; ability to sustain empire of, 12, 35, 172; aristocracy in, 213, 241; castle construction in, 169; church’s role in and relationship with, 171, 346, 347, 512; compared to China, 562n30; compared to Roman empire, 213; ducal elites in, 168–69, 241; failure to expand, 166, 168, 172–73; fragmentation into quasi-polities, 169, 228; governance in, 350; integrity of ruling class in, 214; internal conflicts in (1025 to 1142), 165; land given in exchange for loyalty and military service in, 235, 238, 240–41, 562n30; Magyar raids into (tenth century), 187, 293–94; military controlled by nobles in, 169–70, 237–38, 244, 245; no standing armies in, 238; weak central power coupled with fiscal constraints in, 169–70, 214; zones of armed conflict in, 168

  Germanic languages, 311–12

  Germany: position in Holy Roman Empire, 195; Protestants in, 196, 197. See also Holy Roman Empire; Prussia

  “getting to Denmark,” 19, 539n26

  Ghaznavids, 296, 301

  ghost acreages, 424–25, 426–27, 588n12, 589n19, 589n21

  Gibbon, Edward, 18, 128, 131, 149

  Glahn, Richard von, 401, 412

  globalization: criticism of and response to, 425–28; European colonial reach, 420–25, 452. See also maritime exploration and expansion; New World

  Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 18

  Goffart, Walter, 236

  Golden Horde in Eastern Europe, 183–85, 188–89, 213, 292

  Goldscheid, Rudolf, 232

  Goldstone, Jack, 208–10, 497, 560n16, 586n216, 595n38, 596n44, 597n68, 598n76

  Goths and Gothic language, 311–12

  Grainger, John D., 550n14

  Great Divergence. See First Great Divergence (mid-first-millennium Europe); Second Great Divergence

  Great Escape: British leading the way in, 363, 501; escape simile, 537n1, 539n26; Roman legacy and, 510–26; Second Industrial Revolution’s effect, 17; significance of, 1, 8, 27, 502; values at center of modernization and, 489

  Greek city-states, 52, 56, 58, 91, 93, 95, 100, 103, 109; in counterfactual to Roman empire, 113–14, 121, 522, 553n7; maritime exploration by, 430; troop numbers for, 554n18

  Greek language, 311, 522–23, 573nn5–6, 601n39

  Greek mathematics, 524, 601n42

  Gregory VII (pope), 165, 347

  Gregory IX (pope), 176

  Greif, Avner, 585n199

  guilds, 352–54, 361, 382, 450, 496, 509

  Gungwu, Wang, 444

  gunpowder, 182, 200, 399, 452, 453, 558n20

  Gupta empire, 40, 219, 295, 432

  Guyuk (Mongol ruler), 175, 178, 183, 186, 188

  Habsburgs (sixteenth century), 192–204; compared to Roman empire, 213; counterfactual scenario for, 12, 200–201, 215, 512–13, 559n55; failure to subdue Europe, 496; geopolitical dynamics in, 212, 421; integrity of ruling class in, 214; Napoleon and, 18. See also Holy Roman Empire

  Hall, John, 358, 414, 515

  Hall, T., 568n40

  Han empire: ancestor worship in, 321; bureaucracy in, 226–27; central government control in, 43; compared to Roman empire, 311; Confucianism in, 324; decentralization during, 230; demise of, 241, 243, 250, 397, 405; First Great Divergence and, 229, 229; in heyday of empire, 281, 560n5; merchant class in, 397; mobilization in, 248, 551n29; patronage and simony in, 227; population of, 243, 564n57; steppe effect and, 284, 444; territorial expansion by, 222, 223

  Hannibal, 77, 94, 103, 118–19, 553n16

  Hansen, Mogens H., 549n5

  Harsha empire, 40, 219, 296

  Hartmann, Mary S., 598n81

  Heather, Peter, 268

  Henry I (German ruler), 164

  Henry II (German ruler), 165

  Henry III (English king), 176

  Henry IV (German ruler), 165, 347, 512

  Henry V (German ruler), 165, 166

  Henry VIII (English king), 197, 200, 370, 378

  Hinduism, 329

  Hitler, Adolf, 36, 37, 212

  Hittites, 90

  Hobbes, Thomas, 370, 474

  Hoffman, Philip, 260, 327, 452, 567n26, 574n13

  Hohenstaufen dynasty, 165, 177

  Holland, Cecilia, 190–91

  Holy Roman Empire, 192–204, 194; counterfactual scenario for, 200–201, 215, 512–13, 559n55; duration of, 43, 541n11; Germany’s position in, 195; northern Low Countries’ revolt against Philip II, 202; resistance to concept of empire within, 195–96

  Hoppit, Julian, 381

  horses and equine warfare. See cavalry warfare; ecology

  Hudson Bay Company, 386

  Huguenots, 378

  Hume, David, 473

  Hundred Years’ War, 366, 374, 578n59

  Hungary: Austria’s claim to, 196; Golden Bull, 350; Mongol incursion into, 175–78, 180–82, 185, 187; Ottoman control of, 204; in tenth century, 268. See also Avars; Magyars

  Huns, 130–31, 133, 135, 182, 187, 292, 295, 300

  Hurrians, 90

  Hus, Jan, 474

  Iberian peninsula: Arab conquest of, 139–40, 142–43, 148, 150, 153, 302, 317, 512; British exports to, 423; Castile kingdom in, 176, 431; fiscal value to Roman Empire, 130, 234, 255; language and writing in, 311–12; Magyars in, 187; Napoleon in, 209, 211; Ottomans in, 207; parliamentary tradition in, 350; Roman military mobilizations in, 78, 80–81, 94, 103, 106, 239; Visigoths in, 132, 134, 148, 236, 317

  ideologies of imperial unity, 320–28, 329, 331

  Ilkhanate in Iran and Iraq, 183–85, 189, 213, 563n30

  Inca empire, 193

  India: cotton exports from, 426, 427, 589n20; foreign conquest of, 415; fragmentation in, 257, 573n8; geography of, 265, 295; Islamic invasion in, 416–17; Mongols in, 182, 185, 192; no Enlightenment period in, 483–84; patterns of empire, 10, 39–40, 40, 415–16; Portuguese expansion into, 431; post-Gupta period regional empires in, 415–16; post-nineteenth-century economic development in, 2; religious beliefs in, 329; rivers and flooding in, 500; steppe effect and, 295–98. See also Mughals

  Indonesia, 47, 430, 434

  Industrial Revolution(s): China compared to Europe and, 413–14; conditions conducive to, 392; England as cradle of, 377–82; First Industrial Revolution, 17, 425, 426, 428, 486–88, 491–95, 582n121, 598n81; modern Great Divergence and, 13, 337; Second Industrial Revolution, 6–7, 17. See also England/Britain; Second Great Divergence

  Indus Valley, 113, 140, 552n5

  Inikori, Joseph, 423

  Innocent III (pope), 347

  Innocent IV (pope), 347

  innovation: Chinese stifling of, 396–400, 415, 479–85; Enlightenment and, 473–79; in Europe and England, 391, 393, 415; Industrial Enlightenment of Britain and, 485–88, 497; knowledge and scientific inquiry, 472–73, 478–79; macroinventions and microinventions, 486; in Roman empire, 504–5; technological innovation of Industrial Revolutions, 6, 472, 487; values of modernization and, 488–91

  institutions: Chinese imperial institutions, 392–96; European institutionalization of progress, 344–67, 376, 390–92, 582n136; importance of, 326–27

  international trade. See specific countries and empires

  Iran: competitor to Roman empire in, 84, 223; in counterfactual assuming no Roman empire, 522; ecology of, 298–301; Safavids in, 207–8, 301; steppe effect and, 298–301, 302; trade with, 456. See also Achaemenid empire; Sasanians

  Iraq, 143–46, 182–85, 207, 255–56, 565n71. See also Mesopotamia

  Islam and Islamization, 142–43, 150, 317, 573n9; decline in learning and scientific research and, 482–84, 595n32; Islamic (conquest) polity, 587n219; Islamic trusts (waqf), 418; language differences among constituencies of, 329

  Italy: aristocracy in, 241; coalition of city-states in, 213; coast
line of, 260; commune movement in, 352; German campaigns against (tenth and twelfth centuries), 165, 166; kingdom of, 157; language and writing in, 312; Magyar raids into (tenth century), 187, 293; trade with Byzantium, 509

  Iuba II (king of Mauretania), 432

  Ivan III (Grand Prince of Moscow), 189

  James II (English king), 208–9

  Japan: claiming parts of China, 41; Mongols and, 192; Qing and, 306; as secondary Chinese state, 230; Tokugawa Shogunate (after 1600), 452; transformative economic development in, 2

  Jews, 360, 378, 483

  Jin dynasty (China): conflict under, 227, 242, 253; decentralization during, 230; demise of, 242; ecology and, 280, 282; imperial restoration under, 241–42; militarization under, 242–43; religious beliefs under, 318

  John Bar Penkaye, 143

  Jones, Eric, 265, 344, 359, 388, 393, 495, 514–15, 592n85

  Julian (Roman emperor), 320

  Julius Caesar, 101, 198, 239, 562n30

  Jurchen empire, 41, 174, 230, 285, 288

  Kant, Immanuel, 337–38

  Karayalcin, Cem, 598n79

  Kassites, 90

  Kasten, Brigitte, 555n37, 555n40

  Kavadh I (Sasanian king), 300

  Kennedy, Hugh, 141

  Kepler, Johannes, 483

  Khorasan, 143, 144, 301, 572n94

  Khwarezmian empire, 174, 301

  Kievan Rus’, 175, 291

  knowledge and scientific inquiry, 472–73, 485–88, 497; Greek influences, 523–24, 601n42; Islamic decline in learning and scientific research, 482–84, 595n32; liberty and dignity for ordinary people tied to, 489; “Republic of Letters,” 475, 516, 595n38; in Roman empire, 504–5; values of modernization and, 488–91. See also innovation

  Ko, Chiu Yu, 306, 573n102, 587n224