Escape From Rome
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Kocka, Jürgen, 22
Korea, 230, 251, 260, 266–67, 275, 435, 565n2
Koyama, Mark, 306, 573n102, 587n224, 595n32, 599n6
Kublai Khan (Mongol ruler), 182–83, 186, 285
Kushan empire, 40, 223, 295, 560n5
laissez-faire tendencies, 313, 407, 505, 507
land distribution: Carolingian empire, income from land grants in, 159; China (fifth through seventh centuries), 247, 248; Franks, 240–41; German empire, 235, 238, 240–41, 562n30; Mongol empire, 563n30; Roman empire, 56–57, 66, 67, 71–72
Landes, David, 6, 17, 359, 599n1
language and writing, 308–13; China, 308–9, 310, 312–13, 573n4, 594n23; English, 312; Greek, 311, 522–23, 573nn5–6, 601n39; Islamic world and, 311, 329, 483; post-Roman Europe, 311–13; Romance languages, 312, 510, 517; Roman empire and spread of Latin language, 66, 67, 309–13, 476, 510, 515–18; Southeast Asia, 329; spread of knowledge and, 476
Latin language, 66, 67, 309–13, 476, 510, 515–18
Lattimore, Owen, 275, 280, 572n89
Leo III (pope), 154
Levant. See Middle East and North Africa
Levine, Ari D., 575n44
Lewis, Mark, 319
Liao Qidan, 285, 288, 571n70
liberty and dignity for ordinary people, 489–90
Lieberman, Victor, 265, 275, 297–98, 303, 330, 573n4
life expectancy, 7, 537–38n9
literacy rate, 8, 373, 375, 375, 477, 485–86, 492, 538n11, 596n42. See also knowledge and scientific inquiry
Lithuania, 193, 292, 571n72
Little Divergence, 231, 370, 373
Liu, William, 399, 584n168
Livy, 100, 116–17
Locke, John, 474
Lombard League, 168
Lombards, 135, 137, 153, 155, 156, 238, 312
Lorge, Peter, 327
Lotharingia, 156, 181, 240, 353
Louis the Pious (Frankish king), 156, 244
Louis XIV (French king), 78–79, 208
Luther, Martin, 197, 200, 474
Ma, Debin, 394
Macedon: as Carthaginian ally, 551n31; in counterfactual to Roman empire, 114–17, 521, 553n11; Roman conquest of, 92, 95–97, 99, 104; troop numbers for, 550n12, 551n30, 553n18. See also Alexander the Great
macro-regions: described, 33–34, 34; imperial state formation in, 43–48, 45. See also East Asia; Europe; Middle East and North Africa; South Asia
Madagascar, 430
Magellan, Ferdinand, 431, 440, 465
Maghreb, 43, 91, 93, 132, 139, 143–46, 150–51, 204, 207, 293, 302, 311, 317, 512. See also Middle East and North Africa
Magyars, 158, 164, 168, 182, 187, 246, 293–94
Mair, Victor, 282, 569n45
Majapahit empire, 47
Malacca, 431, 434, 438, 441, 443–44
Malaya, 47
Mamluks, 184–85, 204, 360, 416, 431
Manchus. See Qing empire
Mandarin dialects, 308–9, 312
Mann, Michael, 360
Mao Zedong, 338
marginal zones or contact zones, 279–80, 298, 572n89
maritime exploration and expansion: China’s lack of interest in or need for, 433, 441–46, 591n77; comparison of Chinese and European missions, 439–40; counterfactual scenarios for, 454–71; by European states, 429–32, 590n51; by Ming China, 433–39; Ottoman lack of interest in or need for, 447–48; polycentrism’s role in, 449–53; in Roman empire, 505; South Asia’s lack of interest in or need for, 446–47. See also New World
Marks, Robert, 496
Mary Stuart, 202, 203
Massimiliano, Onorato, 358
mathematics, 479–80, 524, 601n42
Maurya empire, 39, 43, 219, 295, 432
McCloskey, Deirdre, 489–91, 538n13, 596n44
McNeill, John Robert, 263–64
Medes, 299–300
Meeks, Elijah, 106
MENA. See Middle East and North Africa (MENA)
Menzies, Gavin, 468
mercantilism, 268, 344, 353–56, 376–81, 392, 404, 447–51, 497, 581nn109–10, 582n121; fiscal-naval-mercantilist state in England, 385–90, 492–93; unifying set of customs and rule for, 516. See also commercial transactions and credit
Merovingians, 148, 153–54, 161, 163, 237
Mesopotamia, 83–84, 144, 301. See also Iraq
Middle Ages. See post-Roman Europe; specific kingdoms
Middle East and North Africa (MENA): collapse at end of Bronze Age, 221; commercial growth and trade in, 417; defined, 33, 541n7, 541n9; ecology of, 293, 301–2; foreign conquest of, 415; fragmentation of, 207, 415; geography of, 260, 266, 270; imperial state formation in, 45, 45–47, 333; language and writing in, 311; Mongols in, 182, 191, 415; patterns of empire, 10, 13, 38–42, 43, 254–55, 293; polycentrism not applicable to, 418–19; population of, 34, 35, 39, 504; Roman empire controlling, 84, 142; size of, 33; steppe effect and, 302, 333; tax practices in, 255–56, 565n70. See also Arab conquests; specific countries
military mobilization: in Achaemenid empire, 299; in Anglo-Saxon England, 239; in Arab conquests, 145–46; in China, 242–44, 246–51, 257, 397–99; compared to Roman empire, 213–14; fiscal-naval-mercantilist state in England, 385–90; in France (late seventeenth century), 78–79, 208; in German empire, 169–70; in Han empire, 248; importance of, 564n64; in modern times, 368; in Mongol empire, 176, 214, 557n2, 557n5, 557n17; in Napoleonic France, 214; in Ottoman empire, 204–6, 453, 507; in post-Roman Europe, 239, 243–44, 257, 339; in Qin empire, 224; in Roman empire, 63–64, 77–81, 81, 84, 135, 224, 543n16, 546n49, 550n10, 550nn18–22, 551n24; in Roman empire compared to in post-Roman Europe, 239
Ming empire: agrarian focus of, 443; compared to Roman empire, 507; decentralization during, 230, 407; duration and scope of, 229, 282, 569n48; dynastic discord in, 435; economic policies inhibiting growth in, 400–402, 440; imperial governance in, 407; maritime commerce restrictions in, 402, 434, 438, 443, 496; Mongols and, 285, 399, 438; naval expeditions during, 433–39; neo-Confucianism in, 480; rise of, 433, 569n48; taxes and funding in, 233, 237, 409, 421, 433; walls to fend off attacks in, 285, 289, 437; Yongle emperor, 434, 435, 437, 438, 590n40
Mitterauer, Michael, 496
modernity: California school of scholarship on, 575n1; conditions inhibiting, 479–85, 487, 490; conditions over long term leading to, 14, 128, 501, 526–27; Eurocentrism and, 501–2; fragmentation of power as source of, 9, 360–63; polycentrism as essential to development of, 15; price to humanity for, 502; Roman empire’s contribution to, 520; values of modernization, 488–91
Mokyr, Joel, 473, 476, 478, 485, 497, 515, 516, 593n5, 594n21, 595n38, 596n44, 597n68, 598n85
Mongke (Mongol ruler), 175, 183, 185, 186
Mongol empire, 12, 168, 174–92, 184; in Asian countries other than China, 192; Baghdad sacked by, 191; in Central Europe, 175–78, 185; Chagatai khanate in Central Asia, 183; in China, 4, 175, 182–83, 189–90, 230, 285, 286, 398–99, 440, 558n20; compared to Roman empire, 213; counterfactual scenario for, 185–92, 215, 560n16; in Eastern Europe, 174–75, 178; fragmentation of Latin Europe and, 179, 187; inability to maintain a large-scale empire in Europe, 214–15; integrity of ruling class in, 214; internal discord and instability of, 183–85; land allotments in, 563n30; in Middle East (Levant), 182, 191, 301; mobilization of forces in, 176, 214, 288, 557n2, 557n5, 557n17; naval expeditions conducted by, 443, 444; population of, 288, 541n3; reasons for retreat from Europe, 178–79; steppe effect and, 181–82, 183, 192, 245, 278, 556n1, 557–58n18, 557n9; stone fortifications and castle construction as barrier to, 180–81, 188, 557n16, 558n20. See also Genghis Khan; Kublai Khan
monopoly: monopolistic policymaking in China, 400–407, 440; non-monopolization as fundamental to rise of the West, 391; polycentrism vs., 338–44, 339. See also empire
Montesquieu, Baron de, 259, 260, 261, 265, 337
Moore, Robert Ian, 231–32
Morris, Ian: on Chinese lack of need to pursue overseas exploration, 441; counterfa
ctual to Roman empire proposed by, 114; on Norse ability to reach America (compared to Chinese ability), 462, 468, 592n99; social development index of, 4, 6, 537nn5–7
Mughals, 39, 179, 219, 257, 298, 343, 416–17, 432, 452, 483–84, 507, 572n86, 587n221, 590n31
Muscovy, 193, 292
Muslims. See Arab conquests; Islam and Islamization
Napoleon Bonaparte: battle size compared to Roman battles, 79; counterfactual scenario for, 211–12, 215; empire duration and scope under, 36, 37, 483; failure to overcome English and European opposition, 18, 210
nature. See ecology; geographic constraints
naval exploration. See maritime exploration
Needham, Joseph, 266, 594n23
Netherlands: bourgeoisie’s freedom and dignity in, 489–90; eclipsed by Britain’s rise, 492; economic rise of, 371, 391, 415, 580n81; joining England in war against Spain, 202–3; literacy rate in, 373, 477, 596n42; military and war costs of, 369–70, 376–77; New World trade and imperialism of, 203, 422, 426, 444, 449, 451; Protestantism in, 202; taxes in, 369–70, 579n65
Netz, Reviel, 601n42
Newton, Isaac, 478
New World: agrarian empires, 441–48; Atlantic trade, expansion of, 422; bullion imported from, 194, 233, 421–22, 423, 425, 496; China and, 468–71; cotton imports from, 424–25, 427; counterfactual scenario for seventeenth-century colonies in, 209; counterfactual scenario of flipping Old World on its axis so East is West, 459–67, 460–61, 463; European expansionism, 420–25, 449–53; globalist perspective, 420–25; incumbents, 431–40; limits of globalism, 425–28; marginals, 429–31; New Spain, establishment of, 193, 196–97; Pre-Columbian imperial state formation in, 46; sugar imports from, 424–25, 589n17; timber imports from, 424–25
Nicaean creed, 519
Nicholas I (Constantinopolitan patriarch), 573–74n10
Nine Years’ War, 208
nobility: in France, 241; in German empire, 169–70, 237–38, 241, 244, 245; inhibiting modernization and innovation, 487, 490; rise of aristocracy in England, 239; rise of aristocracy in Europe, 169–70, 237–41; in Roman empire, ruling class of noble houses, 68–71, 79, 88–89, 225; society of estates in Europe, 349–51; in Spain, 241; in Tang China, 411; values of, no effect on lives of ordinary people, 596n54
nomadic societies, 276–79, 283, 287–89, 291–96, 299, 305, 568n40. See also specific groups
North, Douglass, 380
North, John, 73
North Africa. See Middle East and North Africa
Northern Song. See Song empire
Northern Wei, 230, 246–47, 282, 284, 318–19, 399
North Sea region (post-1500), 202, 370–77, 391, 477, 496, 579n71, 582n132. See also England/Britain; Netherlands
O’Brien, Patrick K., 589n22
Odoacer, 254, 562n30, 565n68
Ögödei (Mongol ruler), 174, 178, 179, 183, 186
Ophellas, 91
Orestes, 562n30
Orientalism, 392–93, 583n138, 587n221
Ostrogoths, 132, 134, 137, 153, 254, 562n30
Otto I (German ruler), 164, 187
Otto II (German ruler), 164–65, 168
Otto III (German ruler), 165
Ottoman empire, 204–8, 205; commercial growth and trade in, 417, 578n48; compared to Roman empire, 213, 507; compared to Umayyad caliphate, 205; counterfactual scenario for, 206–8; duration of, 12, 35; European relationships with, 195, 196, 201–2, 206; extent of empire, 12, 193, 204–5, 267, 301, 415, 452; hegemony and conservatism in, 483; imperial consolidation under, 38, 43; inability to maintain a large-scale empire in Europe, 214–15; integrity of ruling class in, 214; military mobilization and naval strength of, 204–6, 453, 507, 565n73; obstruction of intellectual innovation in, 484; overseas exploration not of interest to, 447–48; population of, 219; tax revenues in, 206, 417, 565n73
Ottonian empire. See German empire
overseas exploration. See maritime exploration and expansion
Oxford Roman Economy Project, 505
Oxford World History of Empire, 16
Pala empire, 40
Palma, Nuno, 597n64
Papal States, 166. See also Catholic Church
parliamentarianism, 14, 350–51, 376
Parthasarathi, Prasannan, 585n191, 587n221
Parthians, 100, 223, 299–300, 521, 560n5, 601n36
pastoralists, 255, 274, 281, 283, 287, 295, 299, 301–2, 306, 568n40, 569n45
patent law, 486–87
patriarchal structures, 498, 544n31
patrimonialism, 68, 225–27, 366, 544n31
Paul, gospels of, 518–19, 523
Peace of Augsburg (1555), 370–71
Peace of Westphalia (1648), 371
Pechenegs, 290, 291
Pepin, 154
Pepin the Short, 160
Peroz I (Sasanian king), 300
Philip II (Habsburg ruler), 195, 199, 201–3, 202, 213, 378
Philippi, battle of (42 BCE), 79
Philippines, 444, 445
Phoenicians, 429, 431–32
Phrygian language, 311
Pines, Yuri, 323–26, 328, 574nn27–29, 575n33, 585n185
Poland: Mongol incursion into, 175–77, 180–81, 185, 187; Pact of Koszyce, 350; in tenth century, 268
political economy, 387, 392, 413, 442, 470, 486–88, 581n110
Pollack, Sheldon, 484
Polybius, 546n57
polycentrism: in Central America, 46; church’s role as driver of, 348, 519–20; defined, 530; development dynamics of, 339, 419, 497, 510; Enlightenment and, 473–79; essential to (Second) Great Divergence and Industrial Revolution, 15, 337; intermittent in imperial settings, 17; Mongol presence in Europe and, 190; overseas exploration and, 449–53; in post-Roman Europe, 12, 16, 37, 43, 214, 338, 501, 503, 508; significance of, 9, 338–44, 339; tax practices and, 256. See also fragmentation of power
Polynesian explorations of the Pacific, 430–31, 469, 593n103
Pomeranz, Kenneth, 424, 427, 428, 482, 597n67
population: basis for determination of, 533–35; controversy over estimates, 599n3. See also specific empires and countries
Portugal: Eastern expansion and trade of, 431, 438–39, 444; exploration of New World and colonies established by, 421, 426, 430–31, 449; Genoa and, 450; international trade of, 422, 457–58; as threat to Ottoman trade routes, 447–48. See also Iberian peninsula
post-Roman Europe: compared to China, 17, 23, 228, 243, 254–58, 320–28, 329–32, 331, 343–44, 562n30; cultural evolution and, 327; ethnic loyalty in, 330; fiscal decay, effects of, 257; governance in, 349; language and writing in, 311–13; local resistance to tax remissions to central authority, 235, 237; polycentrism in, 12, 16, 37, 43, 214, 338, 501, 503, 508; possible successors to Rome, failure to emerge, 127–28, 214, 333; principal sources of social power in, 339–40; state formation in, 12, 63, 131; tax collection in, 234–39, 254, 257. See also Carolingian empire; East Roman restoration (sixth century); fragmentation of power; polycentrism
poverty reduction, 7, 538n9
Prados de la Escosura, Leandro, 589n22, 598n85
primogeniture, 240, 555n40, 563n33
property rights, protection of, 360, 380–81, 496
Protestantism, 196–98; counterfactual scenario for, 200–201, 203, 512–13; immigration to England, 378; spread of knowledge and, 477; work ethic and, 477, 491
Prussia, 208, 211, 484
Ptolemaic empire, 95–101, 104–5, 117, 521; annual military outlays of, 550n21; navy of, 552n33, 554n18; overseas exploration by, 458; troop numbers for, 551n30, 553n18
Puritanism, 478
Pyrrhus (Epirote king), 91, 118, 546n57
Pytheas, 430
Qing empire: agrarian focus of, 443; bureaucratic structures and, 587n218; clans in, 411; contact with British, 442; duration and scope of, 229, 452, 470; imperial governance in, 407; maritime commerce restrictions in, 402–3, 443; military mobilization and warfare in, 399; neo-Confucianism in, 480; obstruction of intellectual innovatio
n in, 484; rebellion risks in, 443, 586n205; state revenues used to support warfare in, 585n189; steppe effect and, 281–82, 285–86, 399, 584n162; Taiping rebellion (1850s and 1860s), 287, 412, 586n205; taxes and revenue collection in, 233, 237, 407, 409; walls to fend off attacks in, 289
Qin kingdom/empire: ascent of, 281, 283, 560n4; breaking power of aristocrats and setting up civil service system, 225, 244; core China defined by territory of, 229; demise of, 242, 325; ethnic identity in, 282; geography of, 283; language and writing in, 308; Legalism in, 320–21; manpower mobilization in, 224; merchant class in, 397; military mobilization in, 72, 81, 222, 224, 551n29; state formation in, 222; tax structure in, 225
Rawski, Thomas, 394
Reformation, 370–71, 375, 473–74, 477, 478, 489–90, 512
religion and beliefs, 13, 313–20; in China, 317–22, 328; counterfactual of religious unity in Europe, 512–13, 524; English establishment of national religion, 378; European ascendancy of Christianity, 314–17; religious toleration in European countries (seventeenth century), 484, 497. See also Reformation; specific religions and belief systems
“Republic of Letters,” 475, 516, 595n38
Ringmar, Erik, 391, 496
Robinson, James, 496, 525, 602n45
Romance languages, 312, 510, 517
Roman empire: abolition of debt bondage in, 69; adaptations in the core, 68–69; allies and, 59, 60, 67, 73, 79; bureaucracy in fourth century CE, 226–27; capacity for collective action in, 64; capitalized coercion mode of, 63; Christianity during, 314–15; citizenship rights in, 59, 65–66, 73, 75, 79; civilian governance confined to metropolitan core, 68; colonization schemes in, 66–67, 71, 545n42, 548n75; commercial transactions and credit in, 504; compared to Chinese empire, 72, 221–27, 294, 320, 505, 507; compared to Ottoman empire, 213, 507; co-optation and mobilization of citizenry, 10, 59–65, 62, 75, 549n6; cultural assimilation in, 66; demise of, 16, 128, 223, 338, 344, 363, 541n11, 599n1; domestic conflict, 120–22; in early fourth century BCE, 53; economic development in, 505–6; erosion of, thoroughness of, 131, 136–37; explaining creation of, 21, 51–52; extent and expansion of, 34, 75–77, 76, 83, 83–84, 223, 432, 456, 538n15, 543n9, 566n21; factors leading to demise of, 130; failure of similar empire to return after its fall, 9, 10, 11, 16, 127, 131, 503; final phase of expansion and end of conquest, 82–88, 83, 548n72; geography and, 266; growth and triumph, 75–86, 76, 560n5; Huns’ takeover of, 130–31, 133; integration and evolution of Roman commonwealth, 65–68; international trade and trade routes of, 455–58, 504, 592n89; land distribution to soldiers of, 56–57, 66, 67, 71–72; language and writing in, 66, 67, 309–13; legacies of, 14–15, 510–26; legal influence on post-Roman Europe, 514, 516; logic of continuous war, 67, 72–73, 544n31; longevity of, 11, 88, 122, 128–29; manpower as critical to military success, 77–81, 81, 84, 224, 225, 546n49, 550n10, 550nn18–22, 551n24; military leadership of, 57, 68, 70, 85, 547n70; military outlays and payments of, 135, 507, 550nn20–21; modern development resulting from, 503; monarchy in, 226, 234; naval supremacy of, 11, 63, 77, 96, 104–9, 107, 120, 122–23, 432, 456; Oxford Roman Economy Project, 505; parallel of state formation to East Asia, 220, 221–24; patrimonial and clientelistic society in, 68, 225–27, 544n31; patterns of empire and, 35, 35–38, 36; peace (pax Romana) duration during, 504; plunder as funding of, 61, 64, 72, 80; population of, 34–38, 35–38, 55, 62, 74, 76, 76–77, 219, 504, 542n12, 549n6; positive effect on European development, 4; power and leadership concentrated in Rome, 225; public good provision in, 68; religion allied with war-making in, 69; roots of, 11, 52–58, 222; ruling class of noble houses in, 68–71, 79, 88–89, 225; Samnite federation, conflict with, 75–76, 111, 116, 546n55; slave society in, 69, 74, 599n6; Social War (91–89 BCE), 64, 78, 120; starting advantages enjoyed by, 138; stratified layers of classes and roles in, 86, 87; success in and incentives for war in, 57, 70–72; sustainability of continuous war in, 65, 73–74; taxation and revenue in, 61, 64, 72, 80, 81, 234, 235, 506, 600n10; technological innovation in, 504–5; in third century BCE, 60, 222; uniqueness of, 10–11, 13, 18, 19, 35, 122–24, 212, 215, 521–22; urban development in, 504; Veii conflict (early fourth century BCE) and, 57–58, 75, 521; war machine of, 67, 79–82, 119–20, 547nn66–67. See also counterfactual to Roman empire; Roman periphery