Mothers and Others
Page 50
Emery, Nathan, 198
Emlen, Steve, 179–180, 192
Emotions, 24, 40, 50, 52, 62, 105, 231, 275, 279, 285, 293–294; modern, 7–11; development in humans, 11, 28–29, 31–33, 38, 66–67, 131, 137–138, 172, 277, 280–284; in infants, 68, 79, 82–83, 115, 128, 132, 289–290; in mothers, 68, 79, 140; in fathers, 162
Empathy, 2, 7, 11, 58, 283, 293–294; evolution of, 28–29, 66, 137–138; in chimpanzees, 34–35, 53, 56, 61; and language, 37–38; women versus men, 42, 290; neurological basis of, 46–48, 50, 52, 60; in infants, 132, 286, 292. See also Mind reading
Endocrinology, 32, 71, 98–99, 168–173, 212–214, 230, 236–238
Entomology, 185, 190, 202
Eskimos, 153
Ethiopia, 259
Ethnography, 20, 32, 72, 75, 204, 240, 244–245, 249, 268, 282
Ethology, 24, 34, 76, 81, 106, 221, 290
Eusociality, 184–187, 191, 202, 206–207, 264, 276
Euthanasia, 270
Evolution, 11, 26, 43, 85, 146, 174, 179, 212, 283, 285–286, 292–293; of genus Homo, 16–21, 28–29, 32, 62, 66–67, 138, 140, 147, 249, 275–280; natural selection, 29–30, 40, 42, 47, 66–67, 82, 119–121, 131, 156, 180, 192, 200–201, 203, 209, 212, 219–220, 223–224, 231, 238, 248, 254–255, 258, 276–277, 284, 292–293; adaptive behaviors, 37, 39–40, 53, 82, 111, 126, 147, 225–226, 231, 240; role of postreproductive women, 106, 109, 252; of cooperative breeding, 107, 124, 156, 164, 167, 176, 197–199, 230–231, 245, 276–280; and attachment theory, 113–114, 118–119, 124, 126; role of alloparents, 146, 164, 180, 215, 220; and male behavior, 157, 164, 167–168; of shared care, 202, 207, 230–231, 279–280; and residence patterns, 238–241; cultural, 281–282
Evolutionary anthropology, 17, 19, 67
Evolutionary biology, 101, 187, 207, 242, 293
Evolutionary ecology, 282
Evolutionary psychiatry, 133
Evolutionary psychology, 7, 19–20, 240, 271
Exchange networks, 12, 14–16, 26, 29
Exchange partnerships, 14–15
Extended families, 6, 14–16, 20, 65, 103, 105, 131–132, 136, 164, 166, 288
Extinction, 29, 87
“Extra” fathers, 153–156, 165, 272, 287
Eye contact, 47–56, 60, 62, 83, 112, 115, 119–121, 139
Facial expressions, 2, 6–7, 22, 24, 40, 42, 47–59, 62, 83, 114, 120–121, 285
Facultative fathering, 159–164, 167
Fairy wrens, 188–190, 202
Falk, Dean, 123
False-belief experiments, 135–136
False facts, 53
Families: extended (networks), 6, 14–16, 20, 65, 103, 105, 131–132, 136, 164, 166, 288; nuclear, 144–146, 166, 239; single-parent, 145, 150. See also Kinship
Farming-herding societies, 13, 27–28, 72, 75, 101, 107–108, 128, 151, 154, 161, 239, 246–249, 259, 269, 287
Fathers, 42, 76, 79–80, 93–94, 108–109, 112, 117, 145, 148, 265; as caregivers, 87–89; and lactation, 98, 169–170, 172; attachment to infants, 127–129; provisioning by, 148–149, 151–152, 160–163, 178; commitment by, 150–153, 161–163, 166–167, 174; stepfathers, 152, 165; “extra,” 153–156, 165, 272, 287; facultative, 159–164, 167; chimpanzee, 160; emotional needs of, 162; and strategic flexibility, 165–167; and cads, 167–171; in residence patterns, 238–250, 254
Fear, 38
Fecal pellets, 182
Fertility, and food availability, 152–153
Fifi (chimp), 234, 243
Finland, 259
Fire, 249, 256
Fish. See individual genera and species
Fishing, 10
Fledging, 182–183, 195
Fleming, Alison, 42, 170–171
Flexibility, strategic, 165–167
Flinn, Mark, 105–107, 261
Flint (chimp), 234
Flo (chimp), 234, 243
Florida, 146
Fogel, Alan, 120
Food: caloric needs, 14, 31, 43, 75, 101, 147, 149, 152, 256; shortages, 14, 276; nuts, 43–44, 77, 256, 269; availability, and fertility, 152–153; regurgitated, 182, 185; fire-cooked, 249, 256; as evolutionary factor, 254–257, 278–279; tubers, 255–256, 269, 278. See also Provisioning
Food sharing, 23, 25, 35, 79–81, 92, 116, 180–181, 202, 207, 238, 256, 275, 278–279, 283. See also Provisioning
Foraging societies. See Hunting-gathering societies
Foresight, 8–9, 46, 171–172, 175
Fossils, 8, 18, 65, 87, 275, 277–278, 280, 284
Foster, Kevin, 207
Foster parents, 79, 195, 200–201, 211, 228–229, 259, 290–291
Foxes, 179, 181
France, 205, 281
French, Jeffrey, 93–94, 173, 216
French Guiana, 154
Freud, Sigmund, 179
G/wi San, 24
Gaia (chimp), 235–236, 243
Galagos, 86–87, 275
Gambia, 108–109
Games, 4–5, 54, 101, 112, 115, 133, 135–136
Gathering societies. See Hunting-gathering societies
Gaze direction, 51–52
Gazing, 47–56, 60, 62, 112, 115, 120–121, 139
Gender, “wrong,” 70–72
Generosity, 5–6, 12, 14, 25–27, 80, 116, 133
Genetics, 9, 12–13, 21, 28, 66, 72, 157, 186–187, 202–203, 247–250, 276, 280, 291–292
Genghis Khan, 248
Genocide, 28
Georgia, 18, 284
Germany, 103, 150, 262–263
Germ line, 93
Gestures, 22, 24, 40, 112
Gibbons, 86
Gift giving, 4, 12, 14–16, 20, 23–25, 27, 29, 272
Giving impulses, 4, 12, 14–16, 21–26, 36, 66, 96–97, 175, 254, 293
Globalization, 150, 153
Golden lion tamarins, 98, 172–173, 222–223
Gombe reserve, 35, 235–237, 243
Goodall, Jane, 37, 234, 243, 279
Good manners, 4
Goodwill, 14–15
Gorillas, 9, 33, 43, 53, 62, 65, 68–70, 72, 84, 86, 91, 101, 114, 160, 216, 233, 236–237, 239, 243–244, 249, 266, 275
Gottlieb, Alma, 225–227
Grandfathers, 265–267
Grandmother hypothesis, 241–243, 255
Grandmothers, 79–80, 103, 107, 130, 165, 194, 233, 245, 253, 272, 279; maternal, 16, 76, 87–90, 103–104, 108, 241, 247; morphing of, 257–260; kinds of help from, 260–261; maternal versus paternal, 261–264; demographic considerations, 267–269; end of usefulness, 270. See also Alloparents; Postreproductive women
Grasping reflex, 72
Great Apes, 3, 8–11, 17, 21–23, 25, 27, 29–31, 33, 43, 62, 68–70, 83, 86, 101, 161, 196–197, 216, 229–230, 234, 236, 238–240, 243, 249, 254, 275, 280, 283. See also Bonobos; Chimpanzees; Gorillas; Orangutans
Great aunts, 76, 80, 107, 247, 253
Greeting ceremonies, 8
Gremlin (chimp), 236, 243
Grenada, 150
Grooming protocols, 8, 55, 218, 272
Ground squirrels, 93
Growth rates, 101–102, 107–108, 166, 278
Guatemala, 150
Guenon monkeys, 86
Gurche, John, 144
Gusii, 131
Hadza, 66, 76, 78, 106–107, 109, 149–150, 152, 157–158, 165, 171, 188, 204–205, 241, 245, 256, 259, 265
Haida, 12
Hamadryas baboons, 257
Hamilton, William D., 177, 186–188, 190, 197, 242–243
Hamlin, Kiley, 116
Hamsters, 162, 169, 214–216
Handbook of Attachment Theory, 83
Hanse Institute for Advanced Study, 258
Hanuman langurs, 3, 90
Harcourt, Alexander H., 45, 160
Harlow, Harry, 115, 118
Harpending, Henry, 292
Harvard Business School, 15
Harvard University, 96, 148, 191
Hauser, Marc, 96–97
Hawaii, 27, 205
Hawkes, K
risten, 106–107, 152, 241, 243, 255, 258, 268, 276
Hawks, John, 292
Helping, 4, 7, 25, 34, 36, 65, 116, 133, 197, 206, 254
Hennighausen, Katherine, 285
Henry, Paula Ivey, 107, 205, 256
Henzi, Peter, 218
Hewlett, Barry, 79, 112, 128–130, 132, 134–135, 163, 167–169
Hill, Kim, 270, 282
Himba, 24, 26, 50, 81
Hinde, Robert, 118
Hobson, Peter, 33–34, 38, 56
Holding of infants, 43, 69–79, 84, 123, 128, 134–135, 165, 168–169
Hölldobler, Bert, 175
Homicide, 3–4, 19–21, 27, 46, 154, 270
Hominin, formerly hominid, 17. See also specific members of Genus homo
Homo erectus, 16–18, 148–149, 249, 255–256, 276, 278, 283–284
Homo ergaster, 17–18, 149
Homo floresiensis, 17–18
Homo genus, 9, 11, 17, 28, 60, 62, 66, 102, 114, 207, 227, 231, 257, 275–276, 278
Homo georgicus, 284
Homo habilis, 17, 254–255
Homo heidelbergensis, 17
Homo neanderthalensis, 9, 17
Homo rudolfensis, 17
Homo sapiens, 17–18, 23, 28–30, 32, 109, 162, 176, 242, 254, 278, 283–284
Homosexuality, 146
Honeybees, 35, 179, 185–187, 271, 276
Hormones, 39–40, 71–72, 98, 169–173, 212–214, 236–238
Hospitality, 4, 23
Households, female-headed, 150
House mice, 181
Howell, Nancy, 166
Howler monkeys, 86, 228
Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer, 91, 127; Mother Nature, 120, 167
Hughes, T. H., 3
Human genome project, 248
Human Relations Area Files, 77, 240
Hunter hypothesis, 147–149, 239
Hunting-gathering societies, 11, 32, 62, 70, 78, 83, 85, 101, 105, 121, 123, 132, 135, 143–144, 147, 151, 154, 161, 198, 205–206, 236, 240, 244–247, 250, 254, 256, 260, 263, 266, 270, 279; African foragers, 12–16, 23, 44, 72, 75, 79, 106–107, 113, 124, 128–129, 133–134, 149–150, 163, 166–168, 171, 199, 204, 241–243, 265, 273; Pleistocene, 13, 19–20, 28, 67, 73, 109, 148, 166, 238–239, 249; Pliocene, 148, 255
Hxaro, 14–15, 23, 266
Hyenas, 82, 135, 181, 188, 194
Hypersocial attributes, 4, 9, 19–21, 29–30
Ifaluk atoll, 105, 107
Imitation, 48–50, 52–61, 66
Inbreeding, 196, 240
Inclusive fitness, 187–188
India, 3, 78, 87, 90, 133, 153, 251, 258–259, 263–264
Indignation, 3
Individualism, 5, 286
Indonesia, 18, 222
Indris, 86
Infanticide, 46, 89, 99–100, 152, 158, 193–194, 204, 229, 233–236, 250
Infants: reaction to facial expressions, 6–7, 40, 42, 47–50, 52–59, 62, 83, 114, 120–121; vocalizations of, 6, 40–41, 60–61, 76, 112–113, 115, 121–124; mortality rates, 16, 19, 31, 67, 89, 102, 105–109, 112, 121, 140, 152, 163, 166, 218–219, 226, 233, 258–264, 268, 286, 288–289; protection of, 18, 31, 140, 151–152, 159–161, 179, 187, 290; provisioning of, 18, 31, 92, 95–97, 99, 102, 109, 122, 140, 151–152, 158, 160–163, 166, 177–188, 198–199, 203, 220, 273, 275, 277, 279; costliness of, 21, 100–102, 146–148, 151, 153, 162, 180, 250, 270; maturation rates, 21, 29, 100–102, 140, 146–147, 151, 180, 230, 250, 270, 276–277, 287; signaling by, 37–38, 52, 117, 220, 230, 267; sensitivity of, 40, 112, 117–118; crying by, 42, 82–83, 170–171; holding of, 43, 69–79, 84, 123, 128, 134–135, 165, 168–169; weaning of, 43, 102, 116, 178, 182–183, 260, 273, 275, 280, 283; gazing by, 47–56, 60, 62, 112, 115, 119–121, 139; mind reading by, 47, 57, 131, 135–137, 139, 231; imitation by, 48–50, 52–61, 66; chimpanzee, 53–59, 61–62, 68–70, 80, 101, 112, 114, 120–123, 138, 225, 234–235; while sleeping, 53, 55, 130–131; smiling by, 55, 60–61, 76, 112; emotional needs of, 68, 79, 82–83, 115, 128, 132, 289–290; abandonment of, 70–73, 99–100, 103, 120; and foster care, 79, 195, 200–201, 211, 228–229, 259, 290–291; growth rates, 101–102, 108, 166, 278; need for physical contact, 112, 114–115, 118–122, 235, 285–286; separation from mothers, 114, 117–118, 120–122; assessment of others, 115–119, 121, 135–137; teething of, 122; in daycare, 124–126, 130–132, 288; empathy development in, 132, 286, 292; feelings about their environment, 132–135; innate responsiveness to, 212–215. See also Children
Infant sharing, 76–79, 84, 91, 117, 220, 222, 225, 238–239, 246, 250
Inheritance systems, 16, 265–266, 287
Insects. See individual genera and species
Institute for Genomic Biology, 202
Intersubjectivity, 2, 11, 26, 28, 32, 34, 37, 43, 47, 58, 60, 66–67, 117, 131, 137–138, 176, 230–231, 275, 280–283, 285
Interventions, supportive, 104
Irrationality, 7
Israel, 128–132
Italy, 205
Jackals, 181
Japan, 54, 153, 205, 259, 263, 270
Japanese macaques, 70–71, 253
Jarvis, Jennifer, 186
Java, 18, 222
Jays, 169, 176–177, 181, 183, 198
Jealousy, 3, 19, 155, 157, 260
Jesuits, 157
Johns, Chris, 182
Johnson, Allen, 151
Johnstone, Rufus, 207
Jones, Susan, 58–59
Ju/’hoansi, 12–16, 23, 27, 44, 72, 74–78, 109, 112–113, 115, 124, 127, 137, 147, 149, 165–168, 204, 242, 245, 260, 266, 274
Kalahari desert, 12–14, 77
Kamuniak (lion), 209–212
Kaplan, Hillard, 101
Kayapó, 10
Kenya, 131, 150, 158, 209–210
Keverne, Eric, 213
Khasi, 258, 263–264
Khoisan, 12
Kibbutzim, 130–131
Kidnapping, 195, 218, 237
Killing. See Homicide; Infanticide
Kin selection, 186, 212
Kinship: networks (extended families), 6, 14–16, 20, 65, 103, 105, 131–132, 136, 164, 166, 288; and caregiving, 186–190, 197, 239–243; manufactured, 270–272. See also Families
Kiss-feeding, 79, 81, 116
Kissing, 76, 79
Klein, Richard, 17
Konner, Mel, 74–76
Koryak, 12
Kramer, Karen, 101
Kuikuru, 154
Kula ring, 12
Kulina, 154–156
!Kung. See Ju/’hoansi
Kuni (bonobo), 34
Kurland, Jeffrey, 268
Kwakiutl, 12
Lactation, 104, 126, 160, 213, 279; hormonal basis, 39–40, 72, 98, 169, 172; and bonding with infant, 73; nursing by mothers who carry infants, 75, 77; by allomothers, 76, 78, 80, 92, 135, 180–181, 226; and fathers, 98, 169–170; comfort suckling, 178; by wet nurses, 181, 194, 206; end of, 259–260. See also Weaning
Lamb, Michael, 126, 128, 132, 134
Langen, Tom, 182–183
Language, 22, 24, 171–172, 272, 282; capacity for, 9, 37–38, 175, 280; development in humans, 11, 66, 123–124, 249, 280–281, 283; learned by child, 104, 116, 271. See also Vocalizations
Langur monkeys, 3, 41, 71, 86, 90–91, 117, 213–214, 217–219, 222, 246, 250–253
Larsen, Niko, 50
Laughing, 60–61
Lavelli, Manuela, 120
Leaf-cutting ants, 191–192
Leaf monkeys, 86, 91, 222
Leakey, Richard, 33–34
Leckman, James, 73
Lee, Richard, 75
Lemmons, Paul, 201
Lemurs, 3, 86–87, 275
Leonetti, Donna, 258, 263
Leopards, 82, 135
Lethal raiding, 19, 21, 46
Leyendecker, Birgit, 134
Life expectancy. See Longevity
Life history theory, 101
Life-history traits, 275–276
Ligon, David, 199
Lions, 93, 1
77–179, 181, 183, 209–212
Locomotion, 8–9, 121
Lomako site, 25
Longevity, 16, 194, 197, 207, 241–243, 250, 254–255, 257, 267–268, 275–277
Lorenz, Konrad, 221
Lorises, 86–87
Love, 68, 112–113, 116, 120
Lusi, 153
Lyons-Ruth, Karlen, 281, 285, 291
Macaques, 35, 45, 47, 58–59, 68–71, 84, 86, 88–90, 213, 218, 220, 236–237, 253
Mace, Ruth, 107–108, 258–259, 265, 267
Machiavelli, Niccolò, 45
Machiavellian intelligence hypothesis, 41, 45–47, 66, 279, 294
Madagascar, 3, 87
Magnetic resonance imaging, 4, 213
Magpie jays, 181, 183, 198
Main, Mary, 289
Malawi, 150, 264
Malaysia, 133, 222
Malnutrition, 226, 260, 286, 288
Mammals, evolution of, 39–41, 68. See also individual genera and species
Mandinka, 107–109, 258–259
Mandrills, 86
Mardu, 245–246
Marginalization of elders, 270
Marlowe, Frank, 150, 153, 157–158, 165, 267
Marmosets, 51, 86, 131, 140, 158, 161–162, 169, 172, 174, 176, 179, 181, 187, 192, 194, 202–203, 214, 222–224, 240, 262, 270; cooperative breeding in, 92–97, 99–101, 122, 156, 173
Marriage, 15–16, 132, 146, 153, 155, 245–246
Maternal grandmothers, 16, 76, 87, 90, 103–104, 108, 165, 241, 247, 261–264
Mating, 5, 11, 20–22, 25, 93, 147–148, 156, 160, 188, 247–250
Matis, 154
Matriarchy, 254
Matrilineal kin, 16, 103, 155, 196, 238, 241, 245–250, 254, 258, 264–265, 279
Matrilocal kin, 90, 164, 239–240, 244–246, 248, 250, 254, 258, 264, 279
Matsuzawa, Tetsuro, 44, 54–57, 61, 236
Maturation rates, 21, 29, 100–102, 140, 146–147, 151, 180, 230, 250, 270, 276–277, 287
Mauss, Marcel: Essai sur le don, 12
Max Planck Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology, 9, 35–36
Maya, 101
Mbuti, 76, 133–134
McAuliffe, Katherine, 184
McHenry, Henry, 17
Mead, Margaret, 143
Medical anthropology, 258
Medical Research Council, 107
Medicinal plants, 256–257
Meehan, Courtney, 163–165
Meerkats, 80, 173, 176, 179, 181, 183–184, 192–194, 203, 205–206, 214, 262, 282
Mehinaku, 154
Melanesia, 12
Meltzoff, Andrew, 48–50, 52–53, 57–58
Memory, 8–9, 34, 40
Menarche, 207, 274, 287
Menopause, 207, 241–243, 250–255, 257–259, 267–268, 275–277