Mothers and Others
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Mental Development Index, 104
Mentoring, 103–104, 136, 183–184
Merkin, Daphne, 273, 285
Metaplot, 130–131
Mexico, 26
Mice, 38–39, 70, 162, 177–178, 181
Middle Stone Age, 26
Mind reading, 2–4, 7, 10–11, 29–30, 53, 62, 66–67, 115, 138, 175, 230, 292; and cooperation, 29, 37, 279–280, 286; by mothers, 41–45, 283; by infants, 47, 57, 131, 135–137, 139, 231. See also Empathy
Mind-reading-mums hypothesis, 41–45
Mirror neurons, 47–48, 50, 52, 59
Misplaced-parental-care hypothesis, 199–202, 207, 211–213, 228
Mitani, John, 279
Mitered leaf monkeys, 222
Mole rats, 182, 185–186, 191–193, 207, 255, 276
Mongooses, 93, 179, 194
Monkeys. See individual species
Monogamy, 92, 145–148, 154, 246, 249
Montagnais, 153
Moore, Keith, 48–49, 57
Moremi reserve, 250, 253
Morocco, 5
Mortality. See Children, mortality rates; Infants, mortality rates
Motherese, 112, 119, 123, 126
Mothers: breastfeeding by, 39–40, 72–73, 75–78, 80, 92, 98, 104, 126, 135, 160, 169, 172, 178, 180–181, 204, 206, 213, 226, 259–260, 279; care of newborns, 39–41, 68–72; postpartum period, 39–40, 73, 78–79, 99, 120, 212, 236–238, 280, 283; sensitivity of, 39, 42–43, 62, 71, 103, 119, 212, 220; mind reading by, 41–45, 283; chimpanzee, 43–44, 53–56, 68–70, 91, 101, 112–114, 120, 138, 216, 234–235; and alloparents, 66–67, 75, 103–109, 132; central role of, 68–73, 112; and continuous care and contact, 68–70, 74, 83–85, 91, 113–114, 118, 123–124; emotional needs of, 68, 79, 140; allowing others near newborns, 73–79; possessiveness of, 73, 233–237; as focus of attachment theory, 82–85, 111, 113–116, 118–119, 124, 126, 128–130; in survey of primate caring, 87–102; teenage, 103; unmarried, 103, 105; commitment by, 104, 112–114, 118–120, 139, 283–286, 290; vocalizations of, 112, 123, 126; surrogate, 115, 118; co-mothers, 204, 238
Mouse lemurs, 86–87
Moustached tamarins, 96
Mulcahy, Nicholas, 8
Murdock, George Peter, 244–245; Ethnographic Atlas, 240
Muriquis, 87, 123, 227–228
Mutual cooperation, 6
Mutual gazing, 48–50, 52–54, 60
Mutual understanding, 2, 4, 11, 28
Myowa, Masako, 57–58
Nakamichi, Masayuki, 236–237
Namibia, 12–14, 50
Naskapi, 153, 157
Natal coats, 220, 222–225, 227
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 125–126
Native North Americans. See specific groups
Natural selection. See Evolution, natural selection
Nature (journal), 191
Nature Genetics (journal), 256
Nayaka, 133–134
Nelson, Mike, 89
Neocortex, 6, 40–41, 46, 78, 116
Neolithic period, 19–20, 27, 206, 249, 269, 288, 292
Nesse, Randy, 133
Netherlands, 128–129, 132
Neuroendocrinology, 32, 214
Neurophysiology, 4, 6–7, 25, 47–48, 168, 213–215, 220, 230, 233, 236–238
Nevarez, Pedro, 167
Newborns. See Infants
New Caledonian crow, 198
Newfoundland, 169–170
New Guinea, 12, 19, 24, 72, 153, 217
New Stone Age. See Neolithic period
Newsweek, 148
New York Times, 167
New Zealand, 12
Ngandu, 134–135
Night monkeys, 86, 88, 91–92, 161
Nisa (!Kung woman), 165, 260
Nishida, Toshisada, 279
Norway, 150
Nuclear families, 144–148, 166, 239
Nuptial gifts, 25
Nurturing impulses, 40, 98, 159, 173, 237, 290
Nut-cracking skills, 8, 43–44, 77, 256, 269
O’Connell, James, 106, 149, 241, 255, 278
Olds, David, 104
Old Stone Age. See Paleolithic period
Olive baboon, 172
Ongee, 78, 151
Opioids, 213
Orangutans, 8–9, 23, 33, 43, 51, 62, 68–70, 72, 86, 101, 112, 114, 137–138, 160, 225, 249, 275
Orcas, 267
Ornithology, 179, 182–183, 189, 197, 199–200
Orti, Guillermo, 93–94
Ovulation, 95, 206, 249, 287
Oxford University, 220
Oxytocin, 40, 212–213, 215, 237–238
Pain, 38, 192
Paleoanthropology, 148
Paleolithic period, 16, 18, 20–21, 239, 247, 268, 281, 292
Paleontology, 18, 32–33, 66, 148, 230, 278
Pan genus, 21–23
Paper wasps, 176, 190–191, 202–203
Papousek, Hanus, 53
Papua New Guinea, 24, 153, 217
Paraguay, 154
Parasitization, 200–201, 228
Parental care. See Alloparents; Fathers; Mothers; Postreproductive women
Partible paternity, 155–156
Patas monkeys, 37, 84, 90
Paternal grandmothers, 261–264
Paternity, 88, 93–94, 145, 155–159, 162, 168, 188, 265, 287
Patriarchs hypothesis, 267
Patriarchy, 153, 239, 262–265, 267, 287–288
Patrick, William: Loneliness, 286
Patrilineal kin, 16, 155, 157, 239, 245, 247–249, 263–265, 271, 287
Patrilocal kin, 164, 239–240, 244–247, 263, 279
Paul, Andreas, 258
Peabody Museum, 13, 127, 137, 242, 269, 274
Perales, R., 5
Perner, Josef, 135
Peru, 154, 166, 259
Pets, 221
Philippines, 78
Philopatry, 195–199, 202, 240, 243
Physical anthropology, 240
Physical contact. See Tactile contact
Pictographs, 66, 281
Pigeons, 169
Pigtail macaques, 237
Pilot whales, 267
Pilu Pilu, 12
Placentophagia, 69, 99, 162, 215–217
Planning ahead, 8–9, 46, 171–172, 175
Pleistocene epoch, 246, 287–288, 292; climate fluctuations, 5, 19, 230; African foragers comparable to, 13, 73, 109, 112, 199, 273–274; childrearing in, 18, 31, 67, 109, 113, 166, 179, 238, 268, 286; no evidence of warfare, 19–20, 28; family life in, 32, 148, 166, 174, 239; development of communication, 123, 249; development of emotions, 138, 290; shared care in, 175–176, 238; cooperative breeding in, 277–280; development of intersubjectivity, 280–281
Pliocene epoch, 148, 230, 255
Polyandry, 154–155, 157, 249, 272
Polygyny, 154, 245–246, 249
Polynesia, 153
Pomo, 245
Population growth, 16, 18–19, 27–29, 205, 247, 264, 287–288, 292
Possessiveness, maternal, 73, 233–237
Postpartum period, 39–40, 73, 78–79, 99, 120, 212, 236–238, 280, 283
Postreproductive women: evolutionary role of, 106, 109, 252; longevity of, 194, 241–243, 250, 254–255, 257, 267–268, 275–276; eventual decrepitude of, 241, 270; altruism of, 250–254, 259, 267; maternal versus paternal grandmothers, 261–264. See also Alloparents; Grandmothers
Posturing, 137
Potlatch ceremonies, 12
Prairie dogs, 70, 93
Prairie voles, 238
Predation, 19, 31, 82, 84, 89, 117, 134–135, 179, 192, 201, 224, 290
Pregnancy, 39, 71, 152, 169–172, 193–194, 212, 214, 262, 279
Prereproductive women, 75, 124, 217–219, 269, 274
Prevention Research Center for Family and Child Health, 104
Primate Research Institute, 54
Primates (journal), 227
Primatology, 8–9, 32, 34–35, 45, 58, 70, 84, 96, 114, 177
, 235–236, 243, 258
Prisoner’s Dilemma (game), 4–5
Problem solving, 8, 45, 57, 198
Proboscis monkeys, 86, 222
Prolactin, 40, 98, 169–170, 172, 213
Property, 246–247, 266, 287
Prosocial attributes, 6–7, 11, 20, 28, 53, 60, 96, 275, 283, 286, 292–293
Protection, 18, 31, 140, 151–152, 159–161, 179, 187, 290
Provisioning, 20–22, 230; of infants, 18, 31, 92, 95–97, 99, 102, 109, 122, 140, 151–152, 158, 160–163, 166, 177–188, 198–199, 203, 220, 273, 275, 277, 279, 290; as component of cooperative breeding, 25, 122, 199, 207, 275, 277; by alloparents, 59, 79–82, 92, 95–97, 99, 102, 158, 178, 203, 273, 275, 277, 279; role of fathers, 148–149, 151–152, 160–163, 178; critical importance of sharing food, 180–184; and eusociality, 184–188. See also Food; Food sharing
Pseudopregnancy, 181, 206, 210
Psychiatry, 33–34, 36, 42, 62, 73, 82, 111, 115, 133, 285
Psychobiology, 172
Psychological anthropology, 131
Psychological implications of shared care, 140–141
Psychology, 2, 6, 9, 15, 30, 34, 42, 51, 53–54, 58, 60–62, 82, 96, 103–104, 112, 116, 120, 125–126, 128–129, 133–135, 169–170, 271, 282, 284, 289–290; cognitive, 2, 32, 138; evolutionary, 7, 19–20, 240, 271; comparative, 8, 52; clinical, 48; developmental, 48, 51, 82–83, 113–114, 281, 285, 289; child, 111, 285
Puberty, 31, 274, 287
Purple-faced leaf monkeys, 91
Putnam, Robert: Bowling Alone, 286
Pygmy chimpanzees. See Bonobos
Pygmy marmosets, 122
Queens (insects), 185–187, 190–191, 202–203, 276
Queller, David, 190
Rage, 3
Rapaport, Lisa, 96
Rationality, 5, 7
Ratnieks, L. W., 207
Rats, 213
Rattlesnakes, 39
Reciprocity, 6, 15–16, 24, 45, 97, 204, 293
Red colobus monkeys, 3, 90–91
Reddy, Vasudevi, 282
Red foxes, 181
Reeve, Hudson, 191
Regard for others, 11, 35–36
Regurgitated food, 182, 185
Reproductive skew, 184–185, 204–206, 264
Reproductive success, 43, 99, 105–107, 109, 184, 187, 248–250, 254, 259, 261–262
Reptiles. See individual genera and species
Reputations, 14, 19, 35, 45, 97, 117, 152
Residence patterns, 238–250, 254, 279, 287
Responsiveness, innate, 212–215, 219, 229–231
Rewards, 6, 8, 35–36, 212–213, 220
Rhesus macaques, 45, 58, 68–69, 84, 90, 213, 218, 220, 237
Ritual sex, 156
Rome, ancient, 205
Ross, Corinna, 93–94
Rowe, Noel, 223; Pictorial Guide to the Living Primates, 86
Ruffed lemurs, 86–87, 275
Russia, 205
Sagi, Abraham, 129–131
Sakis, 86
Samoa, 12
San Diego Zoo, 236
San speakers, 12, 24, 66, 75, 167
Savanna baboons, 41–42, 69, 90, 158, 172, 197, 217–220, 250–251, 255
Sawyer, Gary, 284
Scelza, Brooke, 245
Schiefenhövel, Wulf, 258
Scholmerich, Axel, 134
Science, 8, 49
Scorpions, 184, 282
Scrub jays, 169, 176–177, 198
Sear, Rebecca, 107–108, 259, 265, 267
Self, sense of, 59, 133, 135, 138–139
Selflessness. See Altruism
Self-regard, 35–36, 97
Semyen foxes, 181
Senegal, 259
Senses, acute, 39
Sensitivity, 97, 136, 217, 267, 271, 275; of mothers, 39, 42–43, 62, 71, 103, 119, 212, 220; of infants, 40, 112, 117–118
Separations, 40, 114, 117–118, 121–122, 275, 285
Serotonin, 119, 237
Sex: “wrong,” 70–72; ritual, 156. See also Mating
Sex contract, 147–150, 173, 239
Sex roles, 41–42
Sexual jealousy, 155, 157
Shame, 117, 282–283
Shared care, 21–22, 75, 85, 113, 124, 131, 176, 184, 204, 233, 277, 294; as component of cooperative breeding, 25, 92–99, 105, 122, 199, 207, 228, 275, 277; dangers of, 99–101; demographic implications of, 101–102; psychological implications of, 140–141; evolution of, 202, 207, 230–231, 279–280; and residence patterns, 238–240
Sharing, 2, 4, 7, 9, 35–37, 65, 67, 130, 133, 137, 149, 152, 175, 257, 272, 280, 285, 293; essential to survival, 11–16, 18–21; and giving impulses, 23–26; food, 23, 25, 35, 79–81, 92, 116, 180–181, 202, 207, 238, 256, 275, 278–279, 283; infant, 76–79, 84, 91, 117, 220, 222, 225, 238–239, 246, 250
Shelter building, 10
Sherman, Paul, 184–185, 264
Shostak, Marjorie, 74
Siberia, 12, 256
Siblings, 60–61, 76, 79, 90, 93–94, 105–108, 112, 133–136, 138, 153, 156, 166, 186, 228, 260, 265, 268–269
Sifakas, 86
Signaling, 37–40, 42, 52, 71, 117, 220, 230, 267
Silk, Joan, 35–36, 97
Silver-backed jackals, 181
Silver leaf monkeys, 91, 222
Single-parent families, 145, 150
Siriono, 153
Slavery, 27, 248
Sleeping, 53, 55, 130–131
Smiling, 55, 60–61, 76, 112, 154
Smith, Adam, 1
Snowdon, Chuck, 122–123
Social competition, 46, 62
Social development, 131
Social intelligence hypothesis, 45–47
Social stratification, 27–28, 148, 204–205, 247, 287
Social support, 72, 103–104, 140, 166, 253, 283
Social work, 103
Sociobiology, 3, 5, 30, 32, 82, 105, 176–177, 240, 243, 258
Sociology, 145
Sol (langur), 251–253
Sooty mangabeys, 250
South Africa, 193
South American foragers. See specific groups
Spain, 5, 18, 205
Sparks, Corey, 268
Spatial cognition, 8–9
Spatial memory, 34
Sperm competition, 248–249
Spider monkeys, 86–87
Spinoza, Baruch, 6
Squirrel monkeys, 86
Squid, 39
Staring, 51, 121
Starlings, 189
Starvation, 14, 19, 31, 43, 90, 102, 179, 273, 290
Status, 11, 20, 45–47, 117, 137
Stepfathers, 152, 165
Sterility, 206–207
Stern, Daniel, 62, 81
Steroids, 99
Stinginess, 20, 97, 137, 204
Stone Age, 10. See also Middle Stone Age; Neolithic period; Paleolithic period
Storey, Anne, 169, 173
Strangers, 3–4, 10, 12, 21–22, 27, 133–135, 233–235
Strategic flexibility, 165–167
Stress, 119, 131, 260–261
Substitute caregivers, 118
Sugiyama, Lawrence, 166
Sumatra, 222
Summers, Lawrence, 191
Superb fairy wrens, 188–190, 202
Superb starlings, 189
Superorganisms, 179–180
Supportive interventions, 104
Supreme Court, U.S., 146
Surrogate mothers, 115, 118
Suttee, 265, 288
Swaziland, 150
Symbolic thinking, 66, 280–282, 294
Taborsky, Michael, 192–193
Tactile contact, 84, 112, 114–115, 118–122, 235, 285–286
Takana, 154
Tamarins, 51, 86, 140, 176, 214, 222–224; cooperative breeding in, 92–93, 95–100, 122
Tanzania, 35, 106–107, 149
Tarsiers, 86
Taylor, Shelley: The Tending Instinct, 286
Teenage mothers, 103
Teet
hing, 122
Termites, 185, 187–188, 276
Territory, 189, 192–193
Testosterone, 169–172
Theory of mind, 2, 30, 42, 45, 50, 66, 136, 139, 280
Thornton, Alex, 184
Tierra del Fuego, 12
Titi monkeys, 86, 88–89, 91–92, 117, 161–162
Tolerance, 22–23, 78–79, 92, 95–96, 279–280
Tomasello, Michael, 9–11, 29, 52, 116, 280–281
Tonkean macaques, 237
Tools, 8, 28, 44, 57, 66, 172, 198, 249, 255
Trevarthen, Wenda, 40
Triassic period, 39
Trichromacy, 224
Trinidad, 106–107, 261
Trobriand Islanders, 12, 24, 78, 139, 141, 258–259
Tronick, Ed, 115
Trust, 16, 79, 87, 133–134, 179, 289, 292
Tsimane, 257
Tsimshian, 12
Tubers, 255–256, 269, 278
Turke, Paul, 105, 107
Turkeys, 51
Turner, Sarah, 70
Twins, 60–61, 93–94, 133, 156
Uakaris, 86
Uganda, 124, 235
Ultrasocial attributes, 10
Uncles, 80, 108, 165
Unilineal kin, 16
United States, 125, 128, 134–135, 144–145, 150, 229, 288
University of British Columbia, 15
University of California–Davis, 89
University of Colorado, 104
University of Illinois, 202
University of Kyoto, 54–55, 61
University of Stirling, 94
University of Virginia, 60
University of Wisconsin, 96
Unmarried mothers, 103, 150
Uxorilocal kin, 244
Van IJzendoorn, Marinus, 129–131
Van Schaik, Carel, 70
Van Lawick, Hugo, 234
Venezuela, 24, 150, 154
Vervet monkeys, 37, 84, 86, 253
Violence, 3–4, 11, 19–21, 26–28
Vocalizations, 6, 22, 40–41, 60–61, 76, 88, 112–113, 115, 119, 121–124, 214. See also Language
Voland, Eckart, 262
Voles, 169, 215, 238
Vonnegut, Kurt, 65
Warfare, 19–20, 27–28, 30, 118, 247
Wasps, 176, 185–186, 190–191, 202–203
Watson, John, 82–83
Wayano, 154
Weaning, 31, 43, 67, 95, 102, 116, 178, 182–183, 259–260, 273, 275, 280, 283. See also Lactation
Welty, Joel Carl: The Life of Birds, 201
West Eberhard, Mary Jane, 190, 203
Wet nurses, 181, 194, 206
Whales, 196, 267, 276
Whiten, Andrew, 45
White-winged choughs, 179, 191, 195
Wied’s black tufted-ear marmosets, 93
Wiessner, Polly, 12–15, 23, 30, 266, 272
Williams, George, 242–243
Wilson, E. O., 175, 179–180; Sociobiology, 177
Winn, Steve, 80
Winnicott, David, 111
Wolves, 59, 80, 134, 176, 179, 181, 194