Spying on the World

by Richard J Aldrich

  23. At the time of the German invasion of Norway, when a rapid division had to be taken to send forces to that country, it was found that only a small part of the intelligence required by the Commanders of those forces was ready to hand. It was as a result of that experience that the Chiefs of Staff, upon the recommendation of the J.I.C., authorised the establishment of the Inter-Service Topographical Department at Oxford. Owing to the fact that there existed no central organisation upon which the new Department could be grafted, it was necessary to invite one of the Service Departments (who were the principal consumers) to undertake the formation and administration of it. A branch (N.I.D. 16) of the Naval Intelligence Division had been engaged since 1915 in the production of geographical handbooks on various parts of the world. The purpose of these handbooks was to supply, by scientific research and skilled arrangement, material for the discussion of naval, military and political problems, as distinct from the examination of the problems themselves. By the end of 1918, upwards of 50 volumes had been produced in handbook and manual form, as well as short-term geographical reports. These handbooks acquired considerable popularity not only in Naval circles, but in the other Services and in Embassies and Legations abroad. The Admiralty had been able to secure the services of distinguished figures in academic life in the preparation of the books. The present series is very comprehensive and though produced by the Admiralty is of interest to nearly all Departments, and would indeed be suitable for general publication — though we understand this might involve some copyright difficulties. Perhaps largely because of their experience in organising their own geographical section, it was upon the Admiralty that fell the responsibility for organising the new Topographical Department. A Royal Marine officer was given charge of the Department, and a large inter-service and civilian staff has been employed. The principal function of the Department has been the production and keeping up to date of handbooks in the I.S.I.S. series and also special reports called for at short notice by Theatre and Force Commanders. The handbooks are designed for the use of Commanders, and provide up-to-date information covering the topography, details of the administration, the economy and the defences of areas which may become the theatre of military operations. While the Department is administered by the Admiralty, its policy is directed by the Joint Intelligence Sub-Committee through a Topographical Sub-Committee composed of the Deputy Directors of Intelligence and officers of comparable position in the other Departments concerned. The priorities given to the work of the Department are laid down from time to time by the Directors of Plans, who are in a position to judge of the areas which may become operationally important.

  24. A separate report is being prepared by the Topographical Sub-Committee on the peace-time requirements of the Services from the Topographical Department. This report will be of considerable value as a yardstick by which to measure peace-time defence requirements for intelligence generally. At the same time we think that the Inter-Service Topographical Department should be regarded as the nucleus of the Central Intelligence Agency whose creation after the war we believe to be desirable and which is outlined later in this report. The information that has been amassed by the Department since its creation, on a wide variety of subjects, not all of them directly related to defence, is of great volume and, we believe, of much potential value. To take one example. Before the United Nations turned to the offensive in 1942, a broadcast appeal was made over the wireless to the general public to send in copies of photographs in private possession covering all parts of the world. The response to this appeal was remarkable, and much valuable data was collected. The Department now possesses a library containing 600,000 photographs, all indexed and cross-indexed, which must be the most comprehensive collection of its kind in the world. Another task the Department have undertaken is that of maintaining an index of people possessing special knowledge of different parts of the world. This is known as the Contact Registry. The Department itself, in building up its reports on topographical information about foreign countries, naturally found it necessary to get into contact with as many people with accurate knowledge of the areas concerned as possible. Therefore, in April 1941, they set up a registry, recording the essential particulars of all civilian refugees who reached this country and claimed special knowledge, topographical or otherwise, of places abroad. From this beginning there has grown up the present index, to which contributions have been made by the Services, the Civil Departments, shipping companies, industrial concerns, British Chambers of Commerce, tourist agencies, learned societies and universities. The present index of contacts covers nearly all parts of the world and includes particulars of over 70,000 people. Here again the information in the Registry is indexed and cross indexed and is a mine of potentially useful information.

  25. It is because the information already recorded in the publications of I.S.T.D. and that to be found in their files and in their registries seem to us to provide the best possible basis for the Central Bureau we have in mind, that we recommend that the Bureau should be built up around the organisation of the Department.

  Intelligence Section (Operations) .

  26. This body is a clearing house for factual intelligence of all kinds. The Joint Planning Staff, Force Commanders, numerous branches of the Service Departments concerned with operations, Combined Operations Headquarters and many other organisations all require detailed intelligence on numerous questions. In the past it was found that the Intelligence Branches in the Service and other Ministries often received from a number of different quarters the same request in a number of slightly differing forms within a short space of time. It was, therefore, found convenient to institute a kind of information bureau, to which any duly authorised authority was entitled to go to seek factual intelligence. The result has been a noticeable reduction in duplication and a considerable saving of time. It will be evident that a good deal of the material produced by the Intelligence Section (Operations) is the kind of material that is also produced by the Inter-Service Topographical Department at Oxford, and that the material acquired by I.S. (O) and given to its customers is also the kind of material that finds its way into I.S.T.D. In fact, it is probable that if I.S.T.D. had been in London instead of at Oxford, it would not have been necessary to establish I.S. (O) as a separate organisation. The central secretariat of I.S.T.D. would seem to have been the appropriate body to deal with this work. If our recommendation that I.S.T.D. should form the nucleus of a Central Intelligence Bureau is accepted, we believe that it will be unnecessary for I.S. (O) to continue its separate existence. In any case, it is doubtful whether I.S.T.D. could remain at Oxford owing to problems of accommodation. They now occupy premises which will shortly be required by the University and College authorities. In parenthesis, we would point out that the fact that there was a demand for such an organisation as I.S. (O) is a strong argument for the maintenance of the principle of factual intelligence being available for all authorised consumers in a central place.

  27. As a matter of convenience, I.S. (O) has been found accommodation in the Cabinet War Room, alongside the Joint Planning and Intelligence Staffs. Though it is an inter-service body with representatives from the three Services and from the Political and Economic branches of the Foreign Office, its general administration is in the hands of the War Office, who provide the necessary junior staff.

  The Inter-Service Security Board .

  28. “The inception of security measures during the preparatory stages of an operation planned at home is the joint concern of the Admiralty, War Office and Air Ministry. Co-ordination is effected by the Joint Intelligence Sub-Committee through the Inter-Service Security Board.” * The I.S.S.B. has fulfilled, during the war, a most useful task in dealing with the day-today problems of operational security. They meet daily and are served by a strong secretariat, established in the War Office. A link with the Civil Ministries is provided by the Advisers to the Panel on Security Arrangements in Government Departments, who are ex officio members of the Board. The B
oard’s principal function is the coordination of measures for preventing leakage of information to the enemy in connexion with special operations. They have developed a close liaison with the parallel organisation in the United States, and with Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force. They also maintain close contact with the London Controlling

  Section, whose operational deception measures have to be closely co-ordinated with our security policy. Local inter-service Security Boards have been established in the different theatres of war.

  29. While in time of war there is clearly need for such an organisation as the I.S.S.B., we do not consider it necessary in peace-time. The normal machinery of the J.I.C. should be competent to deal with the inter-service security problems that will then arise. Arrangements should, however, be made for the re-creation of the Board upon a resumption of hostilities.

  30. It is convenient to deal under this head with another organisation which deals with military security matters, though it does not come under the J.I.C., and forms no part of the Chiefs of Staff organisation. At the time of the fall of France, when this country lay under immediate threat of invasion, a body was established called the Security Executive, under the Chairmanship of Viscount Swinton. Its function was to advise on the measures to be taken against any possible “fifth column.” In practice, it extended its function very widely and has provided a useful forum for discussion and agreement between civil and military interests affected by the rigid security restrictions that it has from time to time been necessary to impose. It is unnecessary in this report to examine in detail the functions that the Security Executive came to perform, since during the last two years it has largely ceased to perform them, and it now exists practically only in the form of its junior committee known as the Liaison Officers Committee, who advise on such questions as the entry into this country of foreign technical missions, the restrictions on the publication of official statistics, and a number of similar minor matters. The Liaison Officers Committee are at present more than usually active, since they are engaged in recommending the “unwinding” of a number of restrictions that it is now possible to relax. The Secretariat of the Security Executive also is responsible for the direction of some aspects of the work of an organisation established in Washington called the British Security Control, which did most valuable work before the United States came into the war in dealing with the security of merchant shipping in the Western Atlantic. This arose through Viscount Swinton having been given a personal responsibility under the then Lord President of the Council for certain of the activities abroad of the Secret Services.

  31. It will be seen that the inter-service and interdepartmental organisation for security in war, though it has been remarkably effective, has followed no clear-cut plan. The principal agency for general security at home is, of course, the Security Service. An inter-departmental body under the Chairmanship of the Secretary of the War Cabinet, called the Panel on Security Arrangements in Government Departments is, as its name implies, responsible for ensuring co-ordination in the security practice of Government Departments in this country and, so far as possible, with Government agencies in the United States and the Dominions and Colonies. On this body the Service Departments are represented, and co-ordination with the J.I.C. is effected in the person of the Chairman and the Secretary, who is also the Secretary of the Joint Staff. The Inter-Service Security Board does come under the J.I.C., and though its responsibilities are primarily connected with operational security, its work necessarily affects many civil authorities. The Security Executive, on which again the Service, as well as the Civil Departments, are represented, is concerned primarily with the impact of the security measures made necessary by war-time conditions on the general public.

  32. We believe that the lesson to be learnt from our experience of security during this war has been that an attempt to draw a distinction between military and civil security must fail, and that it would be wise so to arrange things in future that a single authority be established to deal with these problems. The Joint Intelligence Sub-Committee, since it includes representatives not only of the Services, but of the Foreign Office and the two principal Secret Intelligence organisations, is probably best fitted for the task. It is true that as the J.I.C. is part of the Chiefs of Staff organisation, it might be thought that it would give excessive weight to military considerations. We believe that it should be possible to give satisfactory guarantees to avoid this criticism being justified in practice.

  The Combined Services Detailed Interrogation Centre

  33. This organisation, which is administered by the War Office under one of the Deputy Directors of Military Intelligence, is responsible for the maintenance of certain camps in which selected prisoners of war are detained. Measures are taken at these camps for overhearing and recording the conversations of the prisoners. Each Service Department maintains a section responsible for analysing the reports produced in the Centre. The collation of these reports has provided much valuable operational, technical, economic and political intelligence. While it is hard to see much scope for such an organisation in peacetime, it is clear that the experience gained must not be lost, since it is bound to be of value in any future war. It may be that the technique which has been developed will, however, be of value to the security authorities in peace-time. It might, therefore, be possible both to obtain immediate advantage and to provide the nucleus for a war-time organisation if S.I.S. or the Security Service were to be responsible in peace for research in this field. We cannot make a firm recommendation on this matter in the absence of a decision as to the organisation of our Secret Services in peace-time. We wish, however, to record our opinion that steps should be taken to ensure that we do not lose the profit of our experience.

  The Central Interpretation Unit .

  34. Air photography has proved a valuable aid not only to tactical reconnaissance, but to intelligence generally. For example, air photographs, since they provide an accurate and permanent record of the study of a particular area at a certain time can, by comparison with photographs subsequently taken, indicate the effect of damage by bombing, shelling or sabotage, and the degree of reconstruction that an enemy has been able to carry out. They can similarly provide most useful information as to particular developments, both military and industrial. They provide the quickest and, in the case of any inaccessible country, the only way of obtaining material for the construction of new maps. The Central Interpretation Unit, which is administered by the Royal Air Force, is under the policy direction of the J.I.C. It is so closely linked with the Royal Air Force organisation for taking aerial photographs, that it is necessary to consider the two together. The present photographic reconnaissance organisation provides every branch of the Government at war with such information as can be extracted from photographs. The organisation has five tasks to perform—

  (1) To decide on the priority of the demands for reconnaissance and the manner in which particular tasks shall be carried out.

  (2) To fly the necessary sorties in order that the photographs be taken.

  (3) To carry out the technical processing (developing, printing, &c.) of the photographs.

  (4) To undertake the first interpretation of the photographs.

  (5) To carry out the distribution of the photographs and their interpretations to the interested authorities.

  35. The Air Ministry have established a special Photographic Reconnaissance Group (No. 106) to carry out the necessary flights. The decision on priorities is at present carried out by an inter-service committee subordinate to the J.I.C. The remaining functions of the organisation are those of the Central Interpretation Unit. So high a degree of efficiency has already been achieved that in favourable conditions of weather the customer who urgently requires information can be provided with the prints and interpretational reports within 24 hours of the photographs being taken.

  36. It would be invidious, even if it were possible, to assess the relative values of different types of i
ntelligence. All are complementary. Intelligence obtained by one means may give to intelligence obtained by other means a value which it would not otherwise possess. Yet in sheer volume, the product of aerial photographic reconnaissance has probably provided the greatest single contribution. It requires but little imagination to recognise that the scope of this particular branch of intelligence will greatly extend in the future with the development of aircraft of improved performance and the technical advance that is to be expected in photography. There are few branches of governmental activity in peace or war which may not in future benefit from the products of photographic reconnaissance.

  37. While the principal part in aerial photographic reconnaissance must, we recognise, be undertaken by the Royal Air Force, since it is they who have to operate the aircraft, the interest of the consumers is so considerable that we do not believe that any one Ministry should be burdened with the exclusive responsibility for the general control and direction of this branch of intelligence. Moreover, the interest of the consumers will be such that is to be hoped that they will be able to exercise influence in obtaining the resources in aircraft, technical equipment and personnel which the organisation will require. In proposing that the organisation should come under centralised control for general policy, while remaining under the operational control of the Royal Air Force, we are not, we believe, making any very revolutionary proposal. We have in mind that the policy direction should be in the hands of the Joint Intelligence Sub-Committee. In this case the J.I.C. would normally operate through a special photographic reconnaissance committee, on which all consumer, as well as operational, interests should be represented. It is for consideration whether the Photographic Reconnaissance Organisation ought to enter the commercial field and be available to provide material, not only for Government agencies, e.g ., the Ministry of Town and Country Planning, the Colonial Office, &c., but also for industrial and commercial concerns. It would be right, if this proposal found favour, for His Majesty’s Government to buy out the principal independent company working in this field in peace time. If the organisation did undertake non-official work, the revenue obtained would provide useful relief to the expense of the intelligence organisation as a whole, or could be used towards meeting the expense of research and development in aircraft production.