[958] MacDonald, “Effortful Control, Explicit Processing, and the Regulation of Human Evolved Predispositions.”
[959] Kevin MacDonald, “Evolution and a Dual Processing Theory of Culture: Applications to Moral Idealism and Political Philosophy,” Politics and Culture (Issue, #1, April, 2010; unpaginated); see also Kevin MacDonald, “Evolution, Psychology, and a Conflict Theory of Culture,” Evolutionary Psychology 7, no. 2 (2009): 208–233.
[960] MacDonald, The Culture of Critique.
[961] Another method of assessing implicit attitudes is use of the Implicit Attitudes Test (IAT) in which subjects are presented with photos of Blacks and Whites in succession and asked to pair positive or negative words (e.g., “intelligent,” “law-abiding,” “poor,” “success”) with the photos. Eighty percent of Whites take longer to associate positive words with Blacks than with Whites. This is interpreted as indicating that Whites have implicit negative stereotypes of Blacks.
Recently, the results of the IAT showing that people higher on the IAT are more likely to engage in discrimination have been called into question. However, these findings do not reflect on studies that do not focus on discrimination; nor do they affect studies based on brain scans.
For a good summary of the controversies surrounding the IAT, see Jesse Singal, “Psychology’s Racism-Measuring Tool Isn’t Up to the Job,” The Cut (January, 2017).
https://www.thecut.com/2017/01/psychologys-racism-measuring-tool-isnt-up-to-the-job.html
[962] Elizabeth A. Phelps, et al., “Performance on Indirect Measures of Race Evaluation Predicts Amygdala Activation,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 12 (2000): 729–738.
[963] Paul C. Croll, Douglas Hartmann, and Joseph Gerteis, “Putting Whiteness Theory to the Test: An Empirical Assessment of Core Theoretical Propositions,” unpublished manuscript, Department. of Sociology, University of Minnesota American Mosaic Project (2006).
[964] I describe several cases in my trilogy on Judaism, such as Heinrich Heine; see Kevin MacDonald, Separation and Its Discontents, Ch. 2, n. 9.
[965] Brian A. Nosek, Mahzarin R. Banaji, and Anthony G. Greenwald, “Harvesting Implicit Group Attitudes and Beliefs from a Demonstration Web Site,” Group Dynamics 6 (2002): 101–115.
[966] William A. Cunningham, et al., “Separable Neural Components in the Processing of Black and White Faces,” Psychological Science 15 (2004): 806–813.
[967] A similar study explains what happens when people confront controversial issues related to race and ethnicity. White subjects were shown pictures of a smiling interracial couple and then told that their response to the photo indicated that they were prejudiced. After being told this, subjects took much longer to respond to later photos. This is interpreted as being due to subjects trying to consciously control their responses to the photos. The photo serves as a “cue for control”—a warning that “the situation is one in which prejudiced responses may occur and that the brakes need to be applied to ongoing behavior.”
Margo J. Monteith, Leslie Ashburn-Nardo, Corrine. I. Voils, and Alexander M. Czopp. “Putting the Brakes on Prejudice: On the Development and Operation of Cues for Control,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002): 1029–1050, 1046.
[968] Frances Aboud, Children and Prejudice (New York: Blackwell, 1988); Martha Augoustinos and Dana Louise Rosewarne, “Stereotype Knowledge and Prejudice in Children,” British Journal of Developmental Psychology 19 (2001): 143–156.
[969] Yarrow Dunham, Andrew S. Baron, and Mahzarin R. Banaji, “From American City to Japanese Village: A Cross-Cultural Study of Implicit Racial Attitudes,” Child Development 77 (2006): 1268–1281.
[970] James Moody, “Race, school integration and friendship segregation in America,” American Journal of Sociology 107 (2002): 679–716.
[971] Michael O. Emerson, Rachel Talbert Kimbro, and George. Yancey, “Contact Theory Extended: The Effects of Prior Racial Contact on Current Social Ties,” Social Science Quarterly 83 (2002): 745–761.
[972] Margaret A. Hagerman, “White Progressive Parents and the Conundrum of Privilege,” Los Angeles Times (September 30, 2018).
http://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-hagerman-White-parents-20180930-story.html
[973] David Sikkunk and Michael O. Emerson, “School Choice and Racial Segregation in U.S. Schools: The Role of Parents’ Education,” Racial and Ethnic Studies 31 (2008): 267–293.
[974] Kevin M. Kruse, White Flight: Atlanta and the Making of Modern Conservatism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), 259.
[975] Ibid., 263.
[976] Frank Salter (ed.), Welfare, Ethnicity, and Altruism: New Data and Evolutionary Theory (London: Taylor & Francis, 2005).
[977] Putnam, “E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and Community in the Twenty-first Century”; recent literature is reviewed in Salter, “The Biosocial Study of Ethnicity”; see also Salter, “Germany’s Jeopardy.”
[978] See Salter, “The Biosocial Study of Ethnicity.”
[979] “The State of Personal Trust,” Pew Research Center (July 22, 2019).
https://www.people-press.org/2019/07/22/the-state-of-personal-trust/
[980] Salter, “The Biosocial Study of Ethnicity.”
[981] Steve Sailer, “Fragmented Future: Multiculturalism Doesn’t Make Vibrant Communities but Defensive Ones,” The American Conservative (January 1, 2007).
[982] Shailagh Murray, “Dean’s Words Draw Democratic Rebukes,” The Washington Post (June 9, 2005).
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/08/AR2005060800650_pf.html
[983] Sean Trende, “Does the GOP Have to Pass Immigration Reform?,” Real Clear Politics (June 25, 2013).
[984] “Demographics of Sports Fans,” Demographic Partitions.org (July 10, 2017).
http://demographicpartitions.org/demographics-of-sports-fans-u-s/
[985] Jim Wright, Fixin’ to Git: One Fan’s Love Affair with NASCAR’s Winston Cup (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002), 35.
[986] Ibid., 83.
[987] Ibid., 141.
Wright’s book was published in 2002. Since then, the Confederate flag has been less in evidence and there have been efforts to minimize its presence. In 2015 Brian France, Chairman of NASCAR, called the flag an “offensive symbol,” and asked, but did not require, that it not be shown. Some well-known drivers have discouraged it. In 2019 NASCAR rejected an ad for a semiautomatic rifle. Nevertheless, it is doubtful that NASCAR is any less an implicit White community.
Mike Hembree, “NASCAR Fans: Confederate Flag Still Important Symbol,” USA Today (August 8, 2017).
Awr Hawkins, “NASCAR Shifts on Guns, Rejects Ad Showing Semiautomatic Rifle” Breitbart (September 09, 2019).
[988] Ibid., 156.
[989] Ibid., 37.
[990] Ibid., 156.
[991] Country music is also an implicit White community: The vast majority of people [over 90 percent] who listen to country music on a regular basis are White, while only 3 percent of Hispanics and 5 percent of African-Americans say that they prefer country music to other genres of music.
Brandon Gaille, “49 Curious Country Music Demographics” (May 9, 2016).
https://brandongaille.com/46-curious-country-music-demographics/
[992] “Hoop Dreams: Multicultural Diversity in NBA Viewership” (February 26, 2915).
http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/news/2015/hoop-dreams-multicultural-diversity-in-nba-viewership.html
[993] Gary Peterson, “Brawl puts glaring spotlight on NBA,” Contra Costa Times (Dec. 22, 2007).
[994] Gabe Fernandez, “Baseball Fights Highlight a Double Standard in Sports Perception,” The Sporting News (April 12, 2018).
http://www.sportingnews.com/us/mlb/news/baseball-fights-yankees-red-sox-nba-brawls-players-double-standard/15e4ngugjbiv217ebzyvhzeia8
[995] Ibid.
[996] MacDonald, The Culture of Critique.
[997] Richard Lynn, Race Differences in Psychopathic Personality: An
Evolutionary Perspective (Arlington, VA: Washington Summit Press, 2018).
[998] Robert Plomin, Blueprint: How DNA Makes Us Who We Are (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2018).
[999] Jeffrey A. Gray, The Psychology of Fear and Stress (2nd ed.) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Jeffrey A. Gray, The Neuropsychology of Anxiety: An Enquiry into the Functions of the Septo-hippocampal System (2nd ed.) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
[1000] Jaak Panksepp, Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998),191.
[1001] Kevin MacDonald, “Temperament and Evolution,” in Marcel Zentner and Rebecca L. Shiner (Eds.), Handbook of Temperament (New York: Guilford Press, 2012b): 273–296.
[1002] Gray, The Neuropsychology of Anxiety.
[1003] The BAS can also be seen in children where it is linked to impulsivity (i.e., seeking rewards without adequate attention to costs), “High Intensity Pleasure,” and aggressiveness. Children who score high on behavioral approach are prone to positive emotional responses, including smiling, joy, and laughter available in rewarding situations and in the pleasant social interaction sought by sociable children.
Mary K. Rothbart and John E. Bates, “Temperament,” in Handbook of Child Psychology, William Damon, Richard Lerner, and Nancy Eisenberg (Eds.), Social, Emotional, and Personality Development (Vol. 3) (6th ed.) (New York: Wiley, 2006): 99–166.
[1004] Peter J. LaFreniere, Emotional Development: An Evolutionary Perspective (Boston: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning, 2000).
[1005] Nathan A. Fox, “Dynamic Cerebral Processes Underlying Emotion Regulation,” in Nathan Fox (eds.), The Development of Emotion Regulation: Biological and Behavioral Considerations. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 59, no. 2–3, Serial No. 240): 152–166.
[1006] American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.) (Washington, DC: APA Press, 2013).
[1007] Kevin MacDonald, Emily A., Patch, and Aurelio J. Figueredo, “Love, Trust, and Evolution: Nurturance/Love and Trust as Two Independent Attachment Systems Underlying Intimate Relationships,” Psychology 7, no. 2, 238–253.
[1008] Paul D. Trapnell and Jerry S. Wiggins, “Extension of the Interpersonal Adjective Scales to Include the Big Five Dimensions of Personality,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59 (1990): 781–790.
[1009] MacDonald, “Love, Trust, and Evolution.”
[1010] Jay Belsky, Laurence Steinberg, and Patricia Draper, “Childhood experience, interpersonal development, and reproductive strategy: An evolutionary theory of socialization,” Child Development 62 (1991): 647–670.
[1011] Andreas Bartels and Semir Zeki, “The Neural Basis of Romantic Love,” NeuroReport 11, no. 17 (2000): 3829–3834.
[1012] Trapnell and Wiggins, “Extension of the Interpersonal Adjective Scales to include the Big Five dimensions of personality.”
[1013] Jerry S. Wiggins and Ross Broughton, “The Interpersonal Circle: A Structural Model for the Integration of Personality Research,” Perspectives in Personality 1 (1985): 1–47.
[1014] American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 (Washington DC, 2012).
[1015] Martin L. Lalumiere and Vernon L. Quinsey, “Sexual Deviance, Antisociality, Mating Effort, and the Use of Sexually Coercive Behaviors,” Personality and Individual Differences. 21 (1996): 33–48.
[1016] Robert D. Hare, Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) (2nd ed.) (Toronto: Multi-Health Systems, Inc., 2003).
[1017] Andrea L. Glenn and Adrian Raine, “Psychopathy and Instrumental Aggression: Evolutionary, Neurobiological, and Legal Perspectives,” International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 32 (2009): 253–258.
[1018] Aurelio J. Figueredo et al. “The Psychometric Assessment of Human Life History Strategy: A Meta-analytic Construct Validation,” Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences 8, no. 3 (2014): 148–185.
[1019] Kevin MacDonald, Emily Patch, and Aurelio José Figueredo, “Love, Trust, and Evolution: Nurturance/Love and Trust as Two Independent Attachment Systems Underlying Intimate Relationships,” Psychology 7, no. 2 (2016): 238–253.
[1020] Mary D. S. Ainsworth, Infancy in Uganda (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967); Robert A. LeVine and Sarah E. LeVine, “Parental Strategies among the Gusii of Kenya,” in Robert A. LeVine, Patrice M. Miller, and Mary Maxwell West (eds.), Parental Behavior in Diverse Societies (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988): 28–35.
[1021] MacDonald, “Effortful Control, Explicit Processing, and the Regulation of Human Evolved Predispositions.”
[1022] Ibid.
[1023] Oliver P. John and Sanjay Srivastava, “The Big Five Trait Taxonomy: History, Measurement, and Theoretical Perspectives,” in Lawrence A. Pervin and Oliver P. John (Eds.), Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research, 2nd ed. (New York: Guilford Press: 102–138.
[1024] Ibid., 121; italics in original
[1025] Adrian Raine, “Psychophysiology and Antisocial Behavior: A Biosocial Perspective and a Prefrontal Dysfunction Hypothesis,” in Daniel M. Stoff, James Breiling, and Jack D. Maser (Eds.), Handbook of Antisocial Behavior (New York: Wiley, 1997): 289–304.
[1026] MacDonald, “Effortful Control, Explicit Processing, and the Regulation of Human Evolved Predispositions.”
[1027] Lynn, Race Differences in Personality.
[1028] Lynn notes that Asians are more likely to be willing to donate organs after death than Whites (intermediate) or Blacks (lowest), a finding that fits the general pattern of race differences in IQ and many other traits. However, donations after death are not really costs to the donor and may be influenced by religious beliefs, whereas charitable contributions while living are real costs. As a result, I emphasize the latter. The argument here is that because of the evolution of individualism and consequent elaboration of mechanisms related to personal attractiveness in White populations, race differences in Love/Nurturance do not follow the general pattern, i.e., East Asians, Whites, Africans.
[1029] Nicolas Baumard, “Psychological Origins of the Industrial Revolution,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 41 (September, 2018): 1–47.
[1030] Randall Akee, Emelia Semeonova, E. Jane Costello, and William Copeland, “How Does Household Income Affect Child Personality Traits and Behaviors?, American Economic Review 108, no. 3 (2018): 775–827.
[1031] Gregory Clark, A Farewell to Alms: A Brief Economic History of the World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009).
[1032] Peter Frost and Henry Harpending, “Western Europe, Violence, and State Formation,” Evolutionary Psychology 13, no. 1 (January 2015).
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/147470491501300114#articleCitationDownloadContainer
[1033] “Capital Punishment in China,” Wikipedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_China#Historical_background
[1034] C. Harry Hui and Harry Triandis, “Individualism-Collectivism: A Study of Cross-Cultural Researchers,” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 17, no.2 (1986): 225–248.
[1035] Mary S. Coleman, “Diversity Matters at Michigan,” University of Michigan News Service (November 8, 2006).
www.ns.umich.edu/htdocs/releases/story.php?id=1050
[1036] Michael Skube, “Duke’s Recovery from a Rush to Judgment,” Los Angeles Times (December 31, 2006).
[1037] Sora Jun, Brian S. Lowery, and Lucia Guillory, “Keeping Minorities Happy: Hierarchy Maintenance and Whites’ Decreased Support for Highly Identified White Politicians,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 43, no. 12 (2017): 1615–1629.
[1038] Frank K. Salter, On Genetic Interests: Family, Ethny, and Humanity in an Age of Mass Migration (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2007; orig. published in 2003 by Peter Lang, Bern, Switzerland).
[1039] MacDonald, The Culture of Critique, Ch. 6.
[1040] The New York Intellectuals are analyzed as a Jewish intellectual movement in Th
e Culture of Critique; Ibid.
[1041] Leslie A. Fiedler, “The State of American Writing,” Partisan Review 15 (1948): 870–875, 872, 873.
[1042] Lan Liu and Tong Chen, “Sustainable Cooperation Based on Reputation and Habituation in the Public Goods Game,” Biosystems 160 (2017): 33–38; Manfred Milinski, Dirk Semmann, and H-J. Krambeck, “Reputation Helps Solve the ‘Tragedy of the Commons,’” Nature 415 (2002): 424–426; Dirk Semmann, H-J. Krambeck and Manfred Milinski, “Reputation is Valuable within and outside One’s Own Social Group,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 57(2005): 611–616.
[1043] Mojdeh Mohtashemi and Lik Mui, “Evolution of Indirect Reciprocity by Social Information: The Role of Trust and Reputation in Evolution of Altruism,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 223 (2003): 523–531.
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