El Norte

by Carrie Gibson

  187Quoted in Johannsen, To the Halls of the Montezumas, p. 247.

  188Quoted ibid., p. 248.

  189Henry David Thoreau and John Wood Krutch (ed.), Walden, and Other Writings (New York: Bantam, 1981), p. 85; Greenberg, A Wicked War, p. 196.

  190Greenberg, A Wicked War, p. 128; Sexton, The Monroe Doctrine, p. 94; John Douglas Pitts Fuller, “The Movement for the Acquisition of All Mexico, 1846–1848,” in The Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1936), p. 112.

  191Fuller, “The Movement for the Acquisition of All Mexico, 1846–1848.”

  192Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 2–3.

  193“Our Relations with Mexico,” p. 14; Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny, pp. 236–37.

  194John C. Pinheiro, Manifest Ambition: James K. Polk and Civil-Military Relations During the Mexican War (Westport, Conn.: Praeger Security International, 2007), p. 148.

  195Cong. Globe, Senate, 30th Cong., 1st Sess. (December 1846), pp. 53–54; Pinheiro, Manifest Ambition, p. 149.

  196Speech of Mr. Calhoun, of South Carolina on His Resolutions in Reference to the War with Mexico, January 4, 1848 (Washington, D.C.: J. T. Towers, 1848), pp. 9–10, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044024364713;view=1up;seq=5.

  197Cong. Globe, Senate, 30th Cong., 1st Sess. (December 1846), p. 54.

  198Pinheiro, Manifest Ambition, p. 149.

  199Albert Gallatin, Peace with Mexico (New York: Bartlett & Welford, 1847), p. 28.

  200Ibid., p. 27.

  201Pinheiro, Manifest Ambition, p. 149.

  202King, “Border Crossings in the Mexican American War,” p. 66.

  203Griswold del Castillo, The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, p. 42.

  204McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, p. 50.

  205Quoted in Patricia Galeana, “Presentación,” in Patricia Galeana (ed.), Nuestra Frontera Norte (México: Archivo General de la Nación, 1999), p. 8.

  206Ibid.

  207Balbontín, La Invasion Americana, 1846 a 1848, p. 136. See also Charles A. Hale, “The War with the United States and the Crisis in Mexican Thought,” Americas 14, no. 2 (1957): 153–73.

  208Apuntes para la historia de la guerra entre México y los Estados-Unidos (Tip. De M Payno (hijo), México City, Mexico., 1848), p. 28.

  209James K. Polk: Fourth Annual Message, December 5, 1848, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29489 (accessed April 29, 2015).

  210Ibid.

  211On the key generals who participated in the two conflicts, see introduction to McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom.

  212Ulysses S. Grant, Memoirs and Selected Letters: Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant, Selected Letters 1839–1865 (New York: Library of America, 1990), p. 41.

  213Quoted in Brands, Lone Star Nation, pp. 352–53.

  214De la Teja, A Revolution Remembered, p. 73.

  215Clarksville Standard, March 4, 1887, quoted in Matovina, The Alamo Remembered, p. 48.

  216On the creation and importance of the commemoration of the niños heroes, see Enrique Plasencia de la Parra, “Conmemoración de la hazaña épica de los niños héroes: Su origen, desarrollo y simbolismos,” Historia Mexicana 45, no. 2 (1995): 241–79.

  Chapter 10: Mesilla, New Mexico

  1 José Angel Hernández, Mexican American Colonization During the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 170.

  2 Gómez, Manifest Destinies, p. 2.

  3 Hernández, Mexican American Colonization During the Nineteenth Century, p. 72.

  4 Quoted ibid., p. 69.

  5 Ibid., p. 168.

  6 Paula Rebert, La Gran Línea: Mapping the United States–Mexico Boundary, 1849–1857 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001), p. 6.

  7 St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 28.

  8 Ibid., pp. 28–29; see also Sánchez et al., New Mexico: A History, p. 127; Rebert, La Gran Línea, pp. 7–8.

  9 St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 24; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, p. 11; Rebert, La Gran Línea, p. 12.

  10 Allman, Finding Florida, p. 180.

  11 St. John, Line in the Sand, pp. 40–41.

  12 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, p. 304.

  13 St. John, Line in the Sand, pp. 22, 35, 46.

  14 Ibid., p. 31.

  15 Mesilla was also famous for its association with the outlaw Billy the Kid, as he was tried and sentenced in the town.

  16 Schama, The American Future, p. 270.

  17 Shirley Ann Wilson Moore, “‘We Feel the Want of Protection’: The Politics of Law and Race in California, 1848–1878,” California History 81, no. 3/4 (2003): 99.

  18 Ibid., p. 105.

  19 Tomás Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), p. 26.

  20 James L. Ord to Henry Cerruti, Answers to Questions Concerning U.S. Conquest of California and Impressions of Events and People, as Surgeon with Company F, 3d U. S. Artillery, Landed, Jan. 27, 1847 at Monterey from U.S. Ship, Lexington, BANC MSS C-E 63-65, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, p. 2.

  21 Ibid., p. 4.

  22 Christopher David Ruiz Cameron, “One Hundred Fifty Years of Solitude: Reflections on the End of the History Academy’s Dominance on the Scholarship on the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo,” Bilingual Review 25, no. 1 (2000): 6.

  23 “Proclamation to the People of California from Stephen W. Kearny,” March 1, 1847, Letters sent by the Governors and by the Secretary of State of California, 1847–1848, NARA, RG 94, Microfilm 94/07.

  24 Richard Barnes Mason to L. W. Boggs. June 7, 1847, ibid.

  25 Richard Barnes Mason to William Blackburn, June 21, 1847, ibid.

  26 Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines, pp. 14–15.

  27 Quoted in Tamara Venit-Shelton, “‘A More Loyal, Union Loving People Can Nowhere Be Found’: Squatters’ Rights, Secession Anxiety, and the 1861 ‘Settlers’ War’ in San Jose,” Western Historical Quarterly 41, no. 4 (2010): 478.

  28 Donald J. Pisani, “Squatter Law in California, 1850–1858,” Western Historical Quarterly 25, no. 3 (1994): 290.

  29 Ibid., p. 277; Venit-Shelton, “A More Loyal, Union Loving People Can Nowhere Be Found,” p. 476.

  30 Pisani, “Squatter Law in California, 1850–1858,” pp. 282–83.

  31 Ibid., p. 277.

  32 Ibid., p. 288.

  33 Griswold del Castillo, The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, p. 73.

  34 Pisani, “Squatter Law in California, 1850–1858,” p. 287.

  35 Starr, California: A History, p. 105.

  36 Pisani, “Squatter Law in California, 1850–1858,” p.290-92.; Paul Kens, “The Frémont Case: Confirming Mexican Land Grants in California,” in Gordon Morris Bakken (ed.), Law in the Western United States (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000), pp. 329–30.

  37 Pisani, “Squatter Law in California, 1850–1858,” p. 287; Starr, California: A History, p. 104. Pisani puts the number of confirmed grants at 553, while Starr says it is 604.

  38 Venit-Shelton, “A More Loyal, Union Loving People Can Nowhere Be Found,” p. 479.

  39 Kanellos et al., Herencia, p. 111.

  40 Quoted ibid.

  41 Paul Bryan Gray, A Clamor for Equality: Emergence and Exile of Californio Activist Francisco P. Ramírez (Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press, 2012), pp. 1–14.

  42 Robert M. Fogelson, The Fragmented Metropolis: Los Angeles, 1850–1930 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967), p. 1.

  43 Gray, A Clamor for Equality, p. 15.

  44 Daniel Lynch, “Southern California Chivalry: Southerners, Californios, and the Forging of an Unlikely Alliance,” California History 91, no. 3 (2014): 60.

  45 Venit-Shelton, “A More Loyal, Union Loving People Can Nowhere Be Found,” pp. 483–84.

  46 Lynch, “Southern California Chiv
alry,” p. 61.

  47 El Clamor Publico, October 30, 1855, no. 20, p. 2. Digitized editions of the newspaper are available at http://digitallibrary.usc.edu/cdm/search/collection/p15799coll70.

  48 Stacey L. Smith, “Remaking Slavery in a Free State: Masters and Slaves in Gold Rush California,” Pacific Historical Review 80, no. 1 (2011): 29.

  49 Robert F. Heizer and Alan J. Almquist, The Other Californians: Prejudice and Discrimination Under Spain, Mexico and the United States to 1920 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), p. 124.

  50 Moore, “We Feel the Want of Protection,” p. 109; Heizer and Almquist, The Other Californians, p. 124.

  51 Gray, A Clamor for Equality, pp. xvii, 17.

  52 El Clamor Publico, July 24, 1855, no. 20, p. 2.

  53 El Clamor Publico, December 31, 1859, no. 20, p. 2.

  54 Ruiz Cameron, “One Hundred Fifty Years of Solitude,” p. 4.

  55 Quoted ibid., p. 4.

  56 Griswold del Castillo, The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, pp. 54, 182.

  57 Ibid., pp. 81–82.

  58 Venit-Shelton, “A More Loyal, Union Loving People Can Nowhere Be Found,” p. 474.

  59 Frank H. Taylor, “Through Texas,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, October 1879, p. 713; De León, They Called Them Greasers, p. 27.

  60 Martha Menchaca, “Chicano Indianism: A Historical Account of Racial Repression in the United States,” American Ethnologist 20, no. 3 (1993): 586.

  61 Heizer and Almquist, The Other Californians, p. 95; Donald E. Hargis, “Native Californians in the Constitutional Convention of 1849,” Historical Society of Southern California Quarterly 36, no. 1 (1954): 4.

  62 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 123.

  63 Menchaca, “Chicano Indianism,” p. 587; Moore, “We Feel the Want of Protection,” p. 109.

  64 Hahn, A Nation Without Borders, p. 171.

  65 John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860–1925 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1988), p. 10.

  66 Elliott West, “Reconstructing Race,” Western Historical Quarterly 34, no. 1 (2003): 10–11.

  67 Menchaca, “Chicano Indianism,” p. 590.

  68 Constitution ibid., p. 589.

  69 Ibid., p. 589.

  70 Statement of J. H. Watts to H. H. Bancroft, November 25, 1878, BANC MSS P-E 1-3, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, pp. 14–15.

  71 Zaragosa Vargas, Crucible of Struggle: A History of Mexican-Americans from Colonial Times to the Present Era (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 151.

  72 Case quoted in Ngai, Impossible Subjects, p. 53.

  73 Menchaca, “Chicano Indianism,” pp. 592–95.

  74 Gómez, Manifest Destinies, pp. 43–44.

  75 Moore, “We Feel the Want of Protection,” p. 115.

  76 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 102.

  77 William D. Carrigan and Clive Webb, “The Lynching of Persons of Mexican Origin or Descent in the United States, 1848 to 1920,” Journal of Social History 37, no. 2 (2003): 414.

  78 Ibid., p. 416.

  79 William D. Carrigan and Clive Webb, Forgotten Dead: Mob Violence Against Mexicans in the United States, 1848–1928 (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013, p. 6.

  80 Albert L. Hurtado, “Sex, Gender, Culture, and a Great Event: The California Gold Rush,” Pacific Historical Review 68, no. 1 (1999): 4.

  81 Ibid., p. 13.

  82 Carrigan and Webb, “The Lynching of Persons of Mexican Origin or Descent in the United States, 1848 to 1920,” p. 69.

  83 Jerry Thompson, Cortina: Defending the Mexican Name in Texas (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2007), pp. 13–17.

  84 Ibid., pp. 17–21.

  85 Ibid., p. 23.

  86 Quoted ibid., p. 30.

  87 Ibid., pp. 40–41.

  88 Suarez, Latino Americans, loc. 700–11; Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 103.

  89 Thompson, Cortina, pp. 228, 236, 245.

  90 Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy, p. 675.

  91 From Shaler Papers and quoted in Lewis, The American Union and the Problem of Neighborhood, pp. 36–37.

  92 Quoted in McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, p. 105; for more on this entire period, see Robert E. May, The Southern Dream of Caribbean Empire, 1854–1861 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002).

  93 McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, p. 105.

  94 Ibid.

  95 Daily Crescent, May 27, 1850, III, no. 72, p. 1.

  96 “The Ostend Manifesto,” October 18, 1854, online version at http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/hns/ostend/ostend.html (accessed March 20, 2016).

  97 Ibid.

  98 William V. Wells, Walker’s Expedition to Nicaragua (New York: Stringer and Townsend, 1856), p. 24.

  99 Ibid., p. 25.

  100 Juan Nepomuceno Almonte to William L. Marcy, December 21, 1853, Notes from the Mexican Legation in the United States to the Department of State, 1821–1906, NARA, RG 59, M0054, loc. 1/1/5, Mexico and the United States, Roll 3.

  101 St. John, Line in the Sand, pp. 41–42.

  102 Starr, California: A History, p. 113.

  103 Donald S. Frazier, Blood & Treasure: Confederate Empire in the Southwest (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1995), pp. 4–5; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, p. 683; see also May, The Southern Dream of Caribbean Empire, 1854–1861.

  104 Sánchez et al., New Mexico: A History, p. 130.

  105 Gómez, Manifest Destinies, p. 103; for more detail, see pp. 98–105.

  106 Mark J. Stegmaier, “A Law That Would Make Caligula Blush? New Mexico Territory’s Unique Slave Code, 1859–1861,” in Bruce Glasrud (ed.), African-American History in New Mexico: Portraits from Five Hundred Years (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2015), pp. 47–48.

  107 Ibid., p. 59.

  108 Sánchez et al., New Mexico: A History, pp. 131–32; Vargas, Crucible of Struggle, p. 128.

  109 Sánchez et al., New Mexico: A History, p. 131.

  110 Ibid., p. 134.

  111 Jerry Don Thompson, Vaqueros in Blue & Gray (Austin, Tex.: Presidial Press, 1976), p. 81; Frazier, Blood & Treasure, pp. 40, 104.

  112 Thompson, Vaqueros in Blue & Gray, pp. 5–6.

  113 For more on this period, see Anne Eller, We Dream Together: Dominican Independence, Haiti, and the Fight for Caribbean Freedom (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2016).

  114 Lynch, The Spanish American Revolutions, 1808–1826, p. 327.

  115 Paul Vanderwood, “Betterment for Whom? The Reform Period: 1855–75,” in Beezley and Meyer, The Oxford History of Mexico, pp. 352–53.

  116 “The Fate of Mexico,” United States Democratic Review, May 1858, pp. 340–41.

  117 Karl Marx, “The Intervention in Mexico,” New York Daily Tribune, November 23, 1861; also in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Marx and Engels: Collected Works, vol. 19 (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 2010), pp. 71–78.

  118 Vanderwood, “Betterment for Whom?” p. 358.

  119 Hale, “The War with the United States and the Crisis in Mexican Thought,” p. 169; Jasper Ridley, Maximilian and Juárez (London: Constable, 1993), chapter 2.

  120 Leslie Bethell, “Brazil and ‘Latin America,’” Journal of Latin American Studies 42, no. 3 (2010): 460; John Leddy Phelan, “Pan-Latinism, French Intervention in Mexico (1861–1867) and the Genesis of the Idea of Latin America,” in Juan A. Ortega y Medina (ed.), Conciencia y autenticidad históricas: escritos en homenaje a Edmundo O’Gorman (México: UNAM, 1968), p. 279.

  121 Phelan, “Pan-Latinism, French Intervention in Mexico (1861–1867) and the Genesis of the Idea of Latin America,” pp. 279–81. For the development of the idea of “Latin America” see Michael Gobat, “The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy, and Race,” American Historical Review 118, no. 5 (2013): 1345-75.

  122 Vanderwood, “Betterment for Whom?” p. 358
.

  123 McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, p. 683.

  124 M. M. Chevalier and W. Henry Hurlbut (trans.), France, Mexico, and the Confederate States (New York: C. B. Richardson, 1863), p. 6; Phelan, “Pan-Latinism, French Intervention in Mexico (1861–1867) and the Genesis of the Idea of Latin America,” pp. 279–81.

  125 Chevalier, France, Mexico, and the Confederate States, p. 7.

  126 Andrew Rolle, The Lost Cause: The Confederate Exodus to Mexico (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1965), p. 89. See chapter 10 for more on Sterling Price.

  127 Letter from Sterling Price to Col. Thomas L. Snead, November 15, 1865, Rice University, Woodson Special Collection, Americas Collection MS 518, Series III and Series IV, Box 3, Folder 3.6.

  128 Rolle, The Lost Cause, pp. 95–96.

  129 Vanderwood, “Betterment for Whom?” p. 362.

  130 Hahn, A Nation Without Borders, p. 391.

  131 The emperor’s death was depicted soon afterward in a series of paintings by the French artist Édouard Manet, https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/edouard-manet-the-execution-of-maximilian.

  132 Rolle, The Lost Cause, pp. x, 187; also see Robert E. May, “The Irony of Confederate Diplomacy: Visions of Empire, the Monroe Doctrine, and the Quest for Nationhood,” Journal of Southern History 83, no. 1 (2017): 96–98.

  133 Gregory P. Downs, “The Mexicanization of American Politics: The United States’ Transnational Path from Civil War to Stabilization,” American Historical Review 117, no. 2 (2012): 387.

  134 Mark Wahlgren Summers, “Party Games: The Art of Stealing Elections in Late-Nineteenth-Century United States,” Journal of American History 88, no. 2 (2001): 431.

  135 “What Is ‘Mexicanisation’?” Nation, December 21, 1876, p. 365.

  136 Ibid.

  137 Summers, “Party Games,” p. 431.

  138 “What Is “Mexicanisation?” p. 366.

  139 McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, p. 450.

  140 St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 67.

  141 Willa Cather, Death Comes for the Archbishop (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1927), loc. 152, Kindle.

  142 For more on the “copper borderlands” and the rise of the mining industry in the Southwest, see Samuel Truett, Fugitive Landscapes: The Forgotten History of the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2006).