The World Until Yesterday: What Can We Learn From Traditional Societies?
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redistributive economies, 16–17
relationships. See social bonds
religion(s), 25, 31, 323–68
antiquity of, 340, plate 25
anxiety defusion function, 346–51, 367fig., 368
chiefs and kings as gods, 16, 356
comfort provision function, 351–55, 367fig., 368
definitions of, 326–32, 327–28table, 368
demonstrations of commitment to, 325, 329, 330–31, 343–44, 361–63, 366
explanation function, 329, 345–46, 367fig., 368
functional change over time, 344–45, 367–68, 367fig.
future of, 368
human cognition and, 336–40, 355
learning from traditional societies, 464–65
moral codes and, 329, 353, 357–59, 367fig., 368
origin myths, 323–24, 345, 346
origins and development of, 324, 332–36
overview, 323–26
political obedience and, 356–57, 359, 361, 367fig., 368
political organization and, 347–48, 353–54, 355–57, 367fig., 368
poverty and, 354, 368
science and, 346, 348, 350, 368
social costs and benefits of, 325, 326, 333, 362, 363
as social groups/movements, 329, 330, 331, 332, 343–44, 363, 368
standardized organization, 355–56, 367fig., 368
success and expansion of, 21–22, 363–66
war and, 356–57, 359–61, 366, 367fig., 368
See also supernatural beliefs; specific religions
religious fanaticism, 360, 361
Rennell Islanders, 219–20, 237–38, 313–14
restorative justice, 88, 99, 111–14, 168, 466
See also reconciliation
Retief, Piet, 137
retirement, 223–24, 234–35, 239
revenge
criminal punishment as, 110–11
revenge killings, 84–85, 95, 271–72, 289–90
state prevention of, 98–99, 107, 109, 167–68
in traditional societies, 84–85, 87, 143, 147, 157
traditional warfare and, 143, 147, 157, 271–72
rhabdomancy, 342, 350–51, plate 46
Richardson, Don, 291
Richardson, Lewis, 163–64
risk assessment and tolerance, 270–75, 278, 317–19
faulty assessments, 277, 317–18, 319
in the First World, 277, 306–7, 317–19, 459–60, plate 45
learning from traditional societies, 464
unfamiliar risks, 276–77
risk reduction, 283, 284, 306–7
field scattering as, 303–6
financial investments, 306–7, plate 45
See also constructive paranoia
Robbins, Sterling, 148–49
Rome, ancient, 381, 417
Roscoe, Paul, 122
Rotokas language, 395–96
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 148, 152
Roviana people, 158
Rumsfeld, Donald, 355
Russia, 156
language diversity, 376, 377, 380, 399, 401
wars and violence, 139–40, 146–47, 403
Russian language, 372
Saami people, 215
salt, 417
and hypertension, 417–21, 423–25
sources and intake, 415–17, 425–28, 465
trade in, 68table, 71–72, 416–17
Samoans, 218
San people, 215
Sandeep, S., 441
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, 405
Sawi people, 291
Scandinavian languages, 404
schools, 200–201, 205, 235, 399
Schwartz v. Helms Bakery, 117
science, religion and, 346, 348, 350, 368
sedentariness, 15, 16, 194, 310, 378
disease and, 294–96, 413, 433, 434, 437, 440
Semang people, 139, 156–57, 219
Sengseng people, 21
senilicide, 215–17, 286
Service, Elman, 14–17
sex, 93, 175, 202, 224, 300
sexual selection, 333–34
Shakers, 364
shamans, 297–98, 339, 348, 355–56
Sheldon, Steve, 176–77
Sherman, William Tecumseh, 145–46
Shermer, Michael, 328table
Shoshone Indians. See Great Basin Shoshone Indians; Owens Valley Shoshone Indians
Shostak, Marjorie, 284–85, 414, 450
Siassi traders, 59–60, 61, 66, 67, 68table, 75
Siberian peoples, 309table
siblings, 187, 188, 201, plate 38
Simpson, Nicole, 112
Simpson, O. J., 112
Sioux Indians, 144
Siriono Indians, 14, 48, 60, 93, 156
children, 179, 195, 202, 203–4
elders, 214, 215
food, 300, 444table
hygiene, 296–97
map, 27fig.
sex, 175, 202
The Sky Travelers (Gammage), 58
slavery, 146, 159
Smith, Joseph, 365
snakes, 198, 200, 278, 279table, 280, 283–84, 285
Soccer War, 138
social bonds, 8, 274, 357–58, 454–55, 457
adoptions and, 189
aggregation and dispersal cycles, 315–16
dispute resolution and, 29, 81, 83–84, 87–90, 101, 105, 115
of elders, 219, 233–34, 235
friendship, 52–53
trade and, 63, 64–65, 73–75
violence and, 11, 358, 359
warfare and, 143
in WEIRD societies, 51–52, 88, 91, 456–58
See also group affiliation; reconciliation
social skills, 189–90, 201, 206, 208–9
allo-parenting and, 189–90
multi-age playgroups and, 201
social status
of elders, 221–27
luxury objects and, 63–64, 69
social stratification. See inequality
Solomon Islands, 151, 158, 301
sorcery, 159, 249–50, 297–98
Sorensen, Arthur, 385
Sosis, Richard, 347, 363
South America, diabetes in, 433, 451
South American Indian languages, 397, 398
South American Indians, 27fig., 56, 132, 309table
See also specific groups
Spanish language, 164, 372, 373, 381, 401
spanking of children, 192–93, 194–95
Spiro, Melford, 327table
starvation, 298–300, 308
See also food scarcity
state justice systems, 97–118, plate 16
advantages, 81, 114–18
attribution of fault or guilt, 96, 102–3, 109, 117
civil disputes, 99–104, 117, 118
criminal justice, 99, 108–14, 117, 118, 167
disadvantages, 104–8, 118, 167–68
goals of, 97–99, 103, 111, 117
international disputes, 101–2
mediation in, 100, 105–8, 116, 466
Papua New Guinea, 79–80, 86, 98
reconciliation and restorative justice, 88, 99, 105, 111–14, 118, 168, 466
state’s interests in, 87, 109–10, 118
state religions, 356–57
See also religion(s); specific religions
state warfare, 140–47, plate 37
alliances, 141–42
captives, 141, 159
forms of, 136, 137, 138, 145–46
military organization and technology, 140, 142–43, 144, 146–47
military training, 143, 144, 169
mortality rates, 127, 128, 139–41, plate 37
psychology of enmity and killing, 142–43, 168–70
resolution of, 147–49
trade and, 164–65
ultimate causes, 160–61
war-free states, 155–56
who is affected by, 140–41, 144, 146–47, 163–65
See also specif
ic countries and wars
states, 7, 10–12, 17–18, 19, 353
acceptance of state authority, 98, 148
child-rearing practices, 206–7
religion in, 347–48, 356–57
violence suppression in, 97–99, 115, 148, 286, 288, 290
See also political organization; state justice systems; state warfare
Statistics of Deadly Quarrels (Richardson), 164
stories and storytelling, 285–86, 291–92
oral histories, 478–80
origin myths, 323–24, 345, 346
strangers and stranger contacts, 1–2, 49–50, 51–52, 290
group affiliation and, 50–51, 53–54
political organization and, 11, 16
religious codes and, 357–59, 367fig., 368
terms for outsiders, 51
travel and, 37, 49–50, 54–55, 271–72
violence and, 4, 50, 271–72, 290
in WEIRD societies, 1–2, 53
See also group affiliation; territoriality
Strauss, Richard, 239–40, plate 40
sugar, 428–29, 434, 436
suicide, encouraged or assisted, 215–16, 232
supernatural beliefs, 325–26, 329, 330, 338, 341–44, 341table, 361
as causal explanations, 345–46
intervention by supernatural agents, 329, 331, 345
religious success and, 365–66
See also magic; religion(s); superstitions
superstitions, 342–43, 344, 348, plate 46
Sutton, Peter, 384
swaddling of infants, 185
Sweden, 156, 193
sweet potatoes, 150–51, 298, 300, 301
Switzerland, 156
taboos, 177, 227–29, 298, 339, 348
Talheim pit burial, 134–35
talk and talkativeness, 248, 273–75, 291–92, 299–300, 454
See also stories and storytelling
Tallensi people, 196
Tasmania, language loss in, 398
Tay-Sachs disease, 422
technology and technological change, 18, 348, 381
elders and, 225, 235–36, 237–38
military technology, 142–43, 144
religion and, 348, 350
Teerink, C. G. J., 119
territoriality, 28–29, 37–49, 75
author’s related New Guinea experiences, 37–41, 261–70
borders, 39, 42, 45, 46, plate 34
defenses and patrols, 39, 42, 45, plates 13, 14
defensive fortifications, 135, 150, 152, 291
environmental conditions and, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 155
exclusive territories, 39–41, 41–44, 50
food scarcity and, 302–3
non-exclusive land use, 45–49
trade and, 40, 60–61
warfare and, 127, 130
in Western societies, 48–49, plate 14, plate 34
See also trade; travel
theft, 94, 158
See also raiding
theodicy, 340, 352, 353, 354
thrifty-gene hypothesis, 442–47
Tillich, Paul, 346
tools, trade in, 68–69table, 69, 70
Toussaint-Louverture, 138
toys, 204–5, plates 17, 18
trade, 59–75, 76, plates 32, 33
forms and patterns of, 60–61, 65–67, 73–75
geographic knowledge and, 56
language diversity and, 378
luxury objects, 63–64, 67, 68–69table, 69–70
market economies, 61–65
monopolies, 72–75
multilingualism and, 383–84
social bonds and, 63, 64–65, 73–75
societies lacking, 60
trade items, 62, 64, 67–71, 68–69table
trading specialists, 62–63, 66
travel restrictions and, 40, 60–61
warfare and, 74, 75, 164–66, 287
traditional dispute resolution, 8, 24–25, 29, 80
civil disputes, 99–102
disadvantages, 115, 116, 117–18
face-to-face, 93, plate 15
goals of, 102–3, 108, 111–12
informal justice in modern states, 7–8, 115
mediation and negotiation, 82–83, 85, 92, 93, 95–96, 100, 116
New Guinea accidental death story, 79–86, 89, 117
overview, 92–97
reconciliation in, 29, 83–84, 88–90, 103, 105, 111–12, 116
social bonds and, 29, 81, 87–90, 101, 105, 115
See also compensation processes; state justice systems
traditional societies
advantages, 457–61
defined, 6
information sources and scholarship, 23–24, 476–81
learning from, 7–9, 32–33, 461–66
maps, 26–27figs.
risk assessment and tolerance, 270–75, 278, 283
traditional warfare, 25, 29–30, 80, 119–70, 287, plate 36
alliances and, 120, 141–42, 143
ambushes, 120, 122, 137, 141, 144
attitudes about killing, 143–44, 169, 170
battles, 120, 122, 136, 141, plate 36
chronic nature of, 121, 122, 140, 147
demonization of enemies, 120, 125, 159
effects of European contact, 132, 133–34, 148–54
fate of defeated enemies, 141, 146, 158–59
head-hunting and cannibalism, 151, 158–59
massacres, 120, 122, 127, 141, 146
military organization and training, 120, 141, 144–45
mortality rates, 120, 121, 127–28, 139–41
motives for, 87, 143, 147, 157–59
resolution of, 89–90, 147–49
social factors and benefits, 162–63
sources of information about, 131–36, 149–50, 152–54
trade and, 74, 75, 165–66, 287
typical forms and features, 120–21, 136–38, 141
ultimate causes, 159–63
unplanned escalations of violence, 138
unsuspected enemies, 54–55
viewed as inefficient, 121, 144–45
vs. state warfare, 140–47
war games, 202–3
weapons and military technology, 121, 135, 142, 144, 150, 151
who is affected by, 120, 140–41, 144, 146, 165–67
See also Dani warfare; raiding
travel, 1–2, 4–5, 29, 37, 48–49, plate 14
in enemy territories, 49–50, 54–55, 271–72
friendship and, 29, 53
geographic knowledge and, 29, 54–56
trade and, 40, 60–61
See also territoriality
treachery, 137–38, 290–91
tree hazards, 243–44, 279, 280, 285, plate 42
trespassing. See territoriality
tribes, 15–16, 18
Trobriand Islanders, 17, 26fig.
child discipline, 195–96, 202
food sharing and storage, 301, 303, 309table
trade, 66–67, 68table, 75
Trojan War, 143, 158
Tswana people, 287
Tuareg people, 166
Tumu, Akii, 479
Turnbull, Colin, 205–6
Type-1 diabetes, 430–31, 441, 442
Type-2 diabetes, 32, 430, 431
See also diabetes
Ubykh language, 395, 397
uncontacted peoples, 56–57
See also first contacts
Under the Mountain Wall (Matthiessen), 120
United States
bilingualism in, 386–87, 400
communes in, 362–63
elders in, 223–27, plate 24
homicide rates, 288
Indian language losses, 397, 398, 399, 406
minority languages in, 400
monolingualism in, 370, 383, 400
risk assessment and tolerance, 277, 317–18, 319
salt intake, 416
sugar intake, 428–29
Vanua
tu, 371, 377
Vaupés River Indians, 385–86
vengeance. See revenge
Verdi, Giuseppe, 240, plate 41
vervet monkeys, 337
vigilantism, 98–99, 107, 109, plate 35
violence, 29, 271–72, 277–78, 286–92
among war-free peoples, 156–57
feuds, 89, 95–96
language differences and, 403–4
protective measures, 290–92
religious codes of peaceful behavior, 358–59
state suppression of, 97–99, 115, 148, 286, 288, 290
stranger contacts and, 4, 50, 290
unplanned escalations of, 138, 289
vigilantism, 98–99, 107, 109
vs. warfare, 129–30
when dispute resolution fails, 97
See also killing(s); warfare
vitamin deficiencies, 299
Vogt, Evon, 327table
Voltaire, 359
Wahl, Joachim, 134
Wanigela people, 411, 439table
Waorani Indians, 139, 163
warfare, 119–70
absence of, 155–56
definitions of, 129–31
genetic basis for, 155–57
hand-to-hand fighting in, 142–43
religion and, 356–57, 359–61, 366, 367fig., 368
trade and, 74, 75, 164–66, 287
warlike animals, 154–55
See also state warfare; traditional warfare
wasps, 282
water-witching, 342, 350–51, plate 46
wealth. See affluence
weaning and birth intervals, 179–81
weapons, 18
accidental wounds, 281
state warfare, 142–43, 144
trade in, 68–69table, 69, 70, 71, 73–74
traditional warfare, 121, 135, 150, 151
weather
food availability and, 301, 302–3, 308
weather hazards, 280–81
Weber, Max, 224
WEIRD societies, 8–9
advantages, 455–57, 461–62
child development scholarship, 174–75
child-rearing practices, 180, 182–83, 184–85, 187, 189, 190–91, plate 39
defined, 6
environmental hazards in, 276–77, 279
friendship in, 51–52
individualism in, 91, 224
life expectancies, 231, 233
shortcomings of, 457–61
social bonds in, 51–52, 88, 91, 456–58
stranger contacts in, 1–2, 53
trade in, 61–65
See also specific countries
Welsh language, 409
Westernized lifestyle adoption
health and, 4, 31–32, 411–14, 432–33, 449–50
for safety and comfort, 280
See also diabetes; hypertension
Westernized societies. See WEIRD societies
widow strangling, 21, 216
widowhood, 233
Wiessner, Polly, 479
Wilson, David Sloan, 363–66
Wilson, Michael, 139
Witoto Indians, 214
Wollaston, A. F. R., 298