5. A. Petridis, “’Columbine Destroyed My Entire Career’: Marilyn Manson on the Perils of Being the Lord of Darkness,” Guardian, September 21, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/music/2017/sep/21/columbine-destroyed-my-entire-career-marilyn-manson-on-the-perils-of-being-the-lord-of-darkness.
6. G. Tarde, The Laws of Imitation (New York: Henry Holt, 1903).
7. R. Cialdini, Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion (New York: William Morrow, 1984).
8. M. Chwe, Rational Ritual (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001).
9. American Psychological Association, “Resolution on Violent Video Games,” Adopted by the APA Council of Representatives, August 2015, http://www.apa.org/about/policy/violent-video-games.aspx.
10. A. Przybylski and N. Weinstein, “Violent Video Game Engagement Is Not Associated with Adolescents’ Aggressive Behaviour: Evidence From A Registered Report,” Royal Society Open Science 6: 171474.
11. S. King, Guns (Bangor, ME: Philtrum Press, 2013).
12. M. Gladwell, Thresholds of Violence, The New Yorker, October 12, 2015, https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/10/19/thresholds-of-violence.
13. C. L. Jonson, M. Moon, and B. M. Gialopsos, “Are Students Scared or Prepared? Psychological Impacts of a Multi-option Active Assailant Protocol Compared to Other Crisis/Emergency Preparedness Practices,” Victims and Offenders 15 (2020): 639–62.
14. J. Peterson, E. Sackrison, and A. Polland, “Training Students to Respond to Shootings on Campus: Is It Worth It?” Journal of Threat Assessment and Management 2, no. 2 (2015): 127–38.
15. J. Schildkraut, A. B. Nickerson, and T. Ristoff, “Lock, Lights, Out of Sight: Assessing Students Perceptions of Emergency Preparedness Across Multiple Lockdown Drills,” Journal of School Violence 19 (2020): 93–106.
16. Everytown for Gun Safety Research Report (2020). The Impact of Schools Safety Drills for Active Shootings. https://everytownresearch.org/report/the-impact-of-school-safety-drills-for-active-shootings/.
17. S. Towers et al., “Contagion in Mass Killings and School Shootings,” PLOS One 10 (2015): 112.
18. G. Duwe, “Body-Count Journalism: The Presentation of Mass Murder in the News Media,” Homicide Studies 4 (2000): 364–99.
19. A. Lankford, “Do the Media Unintentionally Make Mass Killers into Celebrities? An Assessment of Free Advertising and Earned Media Value,” Celebrity Studies 9, no. 3 (2018): 340–54.
20. K. Ramsland, Confession of a Serial Killer: The Untold Story of Dennis Rader, the BTK Killer (Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England, 2016).
21. V. Kappeler and G. Potter, The Mythology of Crime and Criminal Justice, 5th ed. (Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 2018).
22. Serial killer is generally attributed to agent Robert Ressler, a member of the FBI’s storied Behavioral Science Unit. The term serial murderer first appeared in 1961, in a review of Fritz Lang’s film M.
23. Data derived from the Radford/FGCU serial killer database of more than five thousand serial killers from 1900 to today, curated by Professors Mike Aamodt, Terence Leary, and Larry Southard, https://www.fgcu.edu/skdb/.
24. A. Liptak, “Facebook Says it Removed 1.5 million Videos of the New Zealand Mass Shooting,” The Verge, March 17, 2019, https://www.theverge.com/2019/3/17/18269453/facebook-new-zealand-attack-removed-1–5-million-videos-content-moderation.
25. A. Hern and J. Waterson, “Social Media Firms Fight to Delete Christ-church Shooting footage,” Guardian, March 15, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/mar/15/video-of-christchurch-attack-runs-on-social-media-and-news-sites.
26. R. Surette, “Performance Crime and Justice,” Current Issues in Criminal Justice 27 (2015): 195–216.
27. M. Yar, “Crime, Media and the Will-to-Representation: Reconsidering Relationships in the New Media Age,” Crime, Media, Culture 8 (2012): 245–60.
28. B. J. Bushman, “Narcissism, Fame Seeking, and Mass Shootings,” American Behavioral Scientist 62 (2017): 229–41.
29. Y. Uhls and P.Greenfield. “The Value Of Fame: Preadolescent Perceptions of Popular Media and Their Relationship to Future Aspirations,” Developmental Psychology 48 (2012): 315–26.
30. J. Henderson, “One in Four Millennials Would Quit Their Job to Be Famous,” Forbes, January 24, 2017, https://www.forbes.com/sites/jmaureenhenderson/2017/01/24/one-in-four-millennials-would-quit-their-job-to-be-famous/?sh=37b4e542c438.
31. A. Lankford, “Fame-seeking Rampage Shooters: Initial Findings and Empirical Predictions,” Aggression and Violent Behavior 27 (2016): 122–29.
32. T. Teves, “A Call to End the Media Coverage Mass Shooters Want,” TED, November 2019, https://www.ted.com/talks/tom_teves_a_call_to_end_the_media_coverage_mass_shooters_want?language=en.
33. P. Krugman, Arguing with Zombies: Economics, Politics, and the Fight for a Better Future (New York: W. W. Norton, 2020).
34. A. Lankford and E. Madfis, “Don’t Name Them, Don’t Show Them, but Report Everything Else: A Pragmatic Proposal for Denying Mass Shooters the Attention They Seek and Deterring Future Offenders, American Behavioral Scientist 62 (2017): 260–79.
35. J. Fox. “’No Names or Photos’ Won’t Stop Mass Shooters, but We Shouldn’t Humanize Them with Details,” USA Today, December 21, 2018, https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2018/12/21/excessive-details-mass-shooters-killers-humanizes-harmful-report-column/2378071002/.
36. J. Levin and J. B. Wiest, “Covering Mass Murder: An Experimental Examination of the Effects of News Focus—Killer, Victim, or Hero—on Reader Interest, American Behavioral Scientist 62 (2018): 181–94.
37. A. Lankford and E. Madfis, “Don’t Name Them, Don’t Show Them, but Report Everything Else: A Pragmatic Proposal for Denying Mass Killers the Attention They Seek and Deterring Future Offenders,” American Behavioral Scientist 62 (2018): 260–279.
38. J. N. Meindl and J. W. Ivy, “Mass Shootings: The Role of Media in Promoting Generalized Information,” American Journal of Public Health 107, no. 3 (2017): 368–70.
39. S. Every-Palmer et al., “The Christchurch Mosque Shooting, the Media, and Subsequent Gun Control Reform in New Zealand: A Descriptive Analysis,” Psychiatry, Psychology and Law (2020), DOI: 10.1080/13218719.2020.1770635.
40. “France Gives Online Firms One Hour to Pull ‘Terrorist’ Content,” BBC News, May 14, 2020, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-52664609.
41. J. Schildkraut and G. W. Muschert, “Media Salience and the Framing of Mass Murder in Schools: A Comparison of the Columbine and Sandy Hook Massacres,” Homicide Studies 18 (2014): 23–43.
CHAPTER 7
1. D. Williams, et al., “Can You Spot a Liar? Deception, Mindreading, and the Case of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Autism Research 11 (2018): 1129–37.
2. M. Kinnard, “Feds: Church Shooting Suspect ‘Self-radicalized’ Pre-attack,” Associated Press, August 22, 2016, https://apnews.com/article/d9693b0934df490caa059c5e18e27aa3.
3. B. Morlin, “Unrepentant and Radicalized Online: A Look at the Trial of Dylann Roof,” Southern Poverty Law Center, December 19, 2016, https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2016/12/19/unrepentant-and-radicalized-online-look-trial-dylann-roof.
4. “On Gab, an Extremist-Friendly Site, Pittsburgh Shooting Suspect Aired His Hatred in Full,” New York Times, October 28, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/28/us/gab-robert-bowers-pittsburgh-synagogue-shootings.html.
5. M. Fathali, “The Staircase to Terrorism,” American Psychologist 6 (2005): 161–69.
6. L. Beckett and J. Wilson, “ ‘White Power Ideology’: Why El Paso Is Part of a Growing Global Threat,” Guardian, August 5, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/aug/04/el-paso-shooting-white-nationalist-supremacy-violence-christchurch?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other.
7. C. R. Sunstein and A. Vermeule, “Conspiracy Theories: Causes and Cures,” Journal of Political Philosophy 17 (2009): 202–227.
8. E. Hoffer, The True Believer: Thoughts on the Nature of Mass Movements (New York: Harper, 1951).
9. J. Kyyam, �
��Opinion: There Are No Lone Wolves,” Washington Post, August 4, 2019, https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2019/08/04/there-are-no-lone-wolves/.
10. R. K. Ghansah, “A Most American Terrorist: The Making of Dylann Roof,” GQ, August 21, 2017, https://www.gq.com/story/dylann-roof-making-of-an-american-terrorist.
11. J. Cobb, “Inside the Trial of Dylann Roof,” New Yorker, January 30, 2017, https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/02/06/inside-the-trial-of-dylann-roof.
12. M. Juergensmeyer, Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence (Oakland: University of California Press, 2017).
13. K. Dilanian, “There Is No Law That Covers ‘Domestic Terrorism.’ What Would One Look Like?,” NBC News, August 9, 2019, https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/justice-department/there-no-law-covers-domestic-terrorism-what-would-one-look-n1040386.
14. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Department of Homeland Security Strategic Framework for Countering Terrorism and Targeted Violence, 2019, https://www.dhs.gov/publication/dhs-strategic-framework-countering-terrorism-and-targeted-violence.
15. D. Holbrook and J. Horgan, “Terrorism and Ideology: Cracking the Cut,” Perspectives on Terrorism 13 (2019): 2–15.
16. R. Scrivens, “Exploring Radical Right-Wing Posting Behaviors Online,” Deviant Behavior (2020), DOI: 10.1080/01639625.2020.1756391.
17. “Psychiatric Examination: Dylann Storm Roof,” December 26, 2016, https://bloximages.newyork1.vip.townnews.com/postandcourier.com/content/tncms/assets/v3/editorial/d/49/d49ddabc-370d-11e7-bca9-c3bd2320bb37/5915a96c89fb4.pdf.pdf.
18. J. Taylor, “The Woman Who Founded the ‘Incel’ Movement,” BBC News, August 30, 2018, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-45284455.
19. “Incels: A Guide to Symbols and Terminology,” Moonshot CVE, May 26, 2020, http://moonshotcve.com/incels-symbols-and-terminology/.
20. C. Lord, L. Ross, and M. Lepper, “Biased Assimilation and Attitude Polarization: The Effects of Prior Theories on Subsequently Considered Evidence,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37 (1979): 2098–2109.
21. B. Nyhan and J. Reifler, “When Corrections Fail: The Persistence of Political Misperceptions,” Political Behavior 32 (2010): 303–30.
22. L. Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1957).
23. S. Lewandowsky and J. Cook, The Conspiracy Theory Handbook, March 2020, https://www.climatechangecommunication.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ConspiracyTheoryHandbook.pdf.
24. N. F. Johnson et al., “Hidden Resilience and Adaptive Dynamics of the Global Online Hate Ecology,” Nature 573 (2019): 261–65.
25. M. Squire, “The Question I Get Most . . . ,” Twitter, July 10, 2020, https://twitter.com/MeganSquire0/status/1281621930202849280.
26. C. Newton, “The Trauma Floor: The Secret Lives of Facebook Moderators in America,” The Verge, February 25, 2019, https://www.theverge.com/2019/2/25/18229714/cognizant-facebook-content-moderator-interviews-trauma-working-conditions-arizona.
27. R. Mac, “A Kenosha Militia Facebook Event Asking Attendees to Bring Weapons Was Reported 455 Times. Moderators Said It Didn’t Violate Any Rules,” BuzzFeed News, August 28, 2020, https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/ryanmac/kenosha-militia-facebook-reported-455-times-moderators.
28. S. Zuboff, The Age of Surveillance Capitalism (New York: Public Affairs, 2018).
29. E. Pariser, The Filter Bubble (New York: Penguin, 2011).
30. S. Noble, Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism (New York: NYU Press, 2018).
CHAPTER 8
1. T. Abt, Bleeding Out: The Devastating Consequences of Urban Violence—and a Bold New Plan for Peace in the Streets (New York: Basic Books, 2019).
2. M. Felson and R. V. Clarke, Opportunity Makes the Thief: Practical Theory for Crime Prevention (London: Home Office, 1998); R. V. Clarke, “Opportunity Makes the Thief. Really? And So What?, Crime Science 3 (2012): 1, https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-7680-1-3.
3. J. A. Fox, “When It Comes to Mass Shootings, the Panic Is What’s Fueling the Crisis,” USA Today, December 3, 2019, https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2019/12/03/mass-shootings-panic-fueling-crisis-column/4320028002/.
4. R. V. Clarke and P. Mayhew, “The British Gas Suicide Story and Its Criminological Implications,” in M. Tonry, ed., Crime and Justice 10 (1988): 79–116.
5. E. Emanuel, “A Simple Way to Reduce Suicides,” New York Times, June 2, 2013, https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/06/02/a-simple-way-to-reduce-suicides/
6. K. Hawton et al., “Long Term Effect of Reduced Pack Sizes of Paracetamol on Poisoning Deaths and Liver Transplant Activity in England and Wales: Interrupted Time Series Analyses,” BMJ 346 (2013): f403.
7. M. Miller, D. Azrael, and D. Hemenway, “The Epidemiology of Case Fatality Rates for Suicide in the Northeast,” Annals of Emergency Medicine 4 (2004): 723–30.
8. T. Nina et al., “Suicide by Firearm in Switzerland: Who Uses the Army Weapon? Results from the National Survey Between 2000 and 2010,” Swiss Medical Weekly 148 (2018), w14646.
9. E. Markowitz and The Trace, “How Switzerland Accidentally Reduced Suicides,” Atlantic, September 8, 2016, https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/09/switzerland-military-gun-suicide/499028/.
10. G. Lubin et al., “Decrease in Suicide Rates After a Change of Policy Reducing Access to Firearms in Adolescents: A Naturalistic Epidemiological Study,” Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior 40 (2010): 421–24.
11. T. Reisch et al., “Change in Suicide Rates in Switzerland Before and After Firearm Restriction Resulting from the 2003 ‘Army XXI’ Reform,” American Journal of Psychiatry 170 (2013): 977–84.
12. T. Reisch, U. Schuster, and K. Michel, “Suicide by Jumping and Accessibility of Bridges: Results from a National Survey in Switzerland,” Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior 37 (2007): 681–87.
13. J. Freilich, S. Chermak, and B. Klein, (2020). “Investigating the Applicability of Situational Crime Prevention to the Public Mass Violence Context,” Criminology and Public Policy 19 (2020): 271–93.
14. A. Whitaker et al., Cops and No Counselors: How the Lack of School Mental Health Staff Is Harming Students, ACLU Annual Report, 2020, https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/field_document/030419-acluschooldisciplinereport.pdf.
15. J. Peterson, J. Densley, and G. Erickson, “Presence of Armed School Officials and Fatal and Nonfatal Gunshot Injuries During Mass School Shootings, United States, 1980–2019,” JAMA Network 4, no. 2 (2021): e2037394.
16. A. Kupchik, Homeroom Security: School Discipline in an Age of Fear (New York: NYU Press, 2010).
17. D. Gottfredson et al. “Effects of School Resource Officers on School Crime and Responses to School Crime,” Criminology & Public Policy 19 (2020): 905–940.
18. F. E. Zimring and G. Hawkins, Crime Is Not the Problem: Lethal Violence in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).
19. D. Thompson, “California Sues US Regulator in Bid to Deter ‘Ghost Guns,” Associated Press, September 29, 2020, https://apnews.com/article/san-francisco-sacramento-us-news-lawsuits-california-7484255afd9d73dceee86a28354dac5e.
20. A. Winkler, Gunfight: The Battle over the Right to Bear Arms in America (New York: W. W. Norton, 2013).
21. B. Resnick, “How to Make Sense of America’s Wildly Different, Confusing Patchwork of Gun Control Laws,” the Atlantic, December 17, 2012, https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2012/12/how-to-make-sense-of-americas-wildly-different-confusing-patchwork-of-gun-control-laws/454299/.
22. R. Mukherjee, “How Many Mass Shootings Might Have Been Prevented by Stronger Gun Laws?,” Los Angeles Times, February 26, 2020, https://www.latimes.com/projects/if-gun-laws-were-enacted/.
23. Q. Bui and M. Sanger-Katz, “How to Prevent Gun Deaths? Where Experts and the Public Agree,” New York Times, January 10, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/01/10/upshot/How-to-Prevent-Gun-Deaths-The-Views-of-Experts-and-the-Public.html.
<
br /> 24. “Gun Owners Divided on Gun Policy; Parkland Students Having an Impact,” Monmouth University, March 8, 2018, https://www.monmouth.edu/polling-institute/reports/monmouthpoll_us_030818/.
25. M. Miller, L. Hepburn, and D. Azrael, “Firearm Acquisition Without Background Checks,” Annals of Internal Medicine 166 (2017): 233–39.
26. M. Siegel et al., “The Relation Between State Gun Laws and the Incidence and Severity of Mass Public Shootings in the United States, 1976–2018, Law and Human Behavior 44 (2021), 347–60.
27. K. E., Rudolph et al., “Association Between Connecticut’s Permit-to-Purchase Handgun Law and Homicides,” American Journal of Public Health 105 (2015): e49–e54.
28. M., Luca, D., Malhotra, and C. Poliquin, “Handgun Waiting Periods Reduce Gun Deaths,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114, no. 46 (2017): 12162–65.
29. N. Nguyen, “Here’s What’s up with “Smart Guns”—and Why You Can’t Buy One in the US,” BuzzFeed News, March 13, 2018, https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/nicolenguyen/what-is-smart-gun-technology.
30. D. C. Grossman et al., “Gun Storage Practices and Risk of Youth Suicide and Unintentional Firearm Injuries,” JAMA 293 (2005): 707–714.
31. C. L. Barry et al., “Trends in Public Opinion on US Gun Laws: Majorities of Gun Owners and Non-Gun Owners Support a Range of Measures,” Health Affairs 38 (2019): 1727–34.
32. C. K. Crifasi et al., “Storage Practices of US Gunowners in 2016,” American Journal of Public Health 108 (2018): 532–37.
33. D. Azrael et al., “Firearm Storage in Gun-Owning Households with Children: Results of a 2015 National Survey,” Journal of Urban Health 95 (2018): 295–304.
34. J. A. Simonetti et al., “Firearm Storage Practices Among American Veterans,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 55 (2018): 445–54.
35. United States Government Accountability Office, Personal Firearms: Programs that Promote Safe Storage and Research on Their Effectiveness, September 2017, https://www.gao.gov/assets/690/687239.pdf.
The Violence Project Page 23