9780823268757.pdf
Page 39
e Slave
Narratives of Texas (Austin: Th
e Encino Press, 1974), 115, 121, 123.
18. La Grange True Issue, June 17, 1865; C. B. Stewart to A. J. Hamilton, November
17, 1865, Incoming Correspondence, Governor Andrew Jackson Hamilton Records (RG
301), Archives Division–Texas State Library and Archives Commission (hereaft er cited
Governor Correspondences); [Citizens of Jackson County] to A. J. Hamilton, Novem-
ber 1865, Hamilton Governor Correspondences; J. O. Th
ally to A. J. Hamilton, Novem-
ber 6, 1865, Hamilton Governor Correspondences; Sallie M. Lentz, “Highlights of
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 209
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 209
4/27/16 11:13 AM
4/27/16 11:13 AM
210
Notes to pages 38–39
Early Harrison County,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 61 (October 1957): 254;
F. W. Grassmeyer to A. J. Hamilton, November 22 1865, Hamilton Governor Corre-
spondences; J. W. Th
rockmorton to [J. B.] Kiddoo, November 13, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–
1867, reel 9. For examinations of the Christmas scare, see Steven Hahn, “ ‘Extravagant
Expectations of Freedom’: Rumor, Political Struggle, and the Christmas Insurrection
Scare of 1865 in the American South,” Past and Present 157 (November 1997): 122–158;
and Dan T. Carter, “Th
e Anatomy of Fear: Th
e Christmas Day Insurrection Scare of
1865,” Journal of Southern History 42 (August 1976): 345–364.
19. Jeff rey R. Kerr- Ritchie, Freedpeople in the Tobacco South: Virginia, 1860–1900
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 37. For works on free labor ide-
ology, see Eric Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: Th
e Ideology of the Republican
Party Before the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970); Eric Foner, Poli-
tics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980);
Lawrence N. Powell, “Th
e American Land Company and Agency: John A. Andrew and
the Northernization of the South,” Civil War History 21 (December 1975): 293–308; Bar-
bara J. Fields and Leslie S. Rowland, “Free Labor Ideology and Its Exponents in the
South During the Civil War and Reconstruction” (paper delivered at Organization of
American Historians Annual Meeting, 1984); Heather C. Richardson, Th
e Death of
Reconstruction: Race, Labor, and Politics in the Post–Civil War North, 1865–1901 (Cam-
bridge: Harvard University Press, 2001); Ira Berlin, et al,, eds., Th
e Wartime Genesis of
Free Labor: Th
e Lower South (Cambridge: Oxford University Press, 1990); Gerald D.
Jaynes, Branches without Roots: Genesis of the Black Working Class in the American
South, 1862–1882 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Barbara J. Fields, Slavery
and Freedom on the Middle Ground: Maryland During the Nineteenth Century (New
Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); Joseph P. Reidy, From Slavery to Agrarian Capital-
ism in the Cotton Plantation South: Central Georgia, 1800–1880 (Chapel Hill: University
of North Carolina Press, 1992); and Nancy Cohen- Lack, “A Struggle for Sovereignty:
National Consolidation, Emancipation, and Free Labor in Texas, 1865,” Journal of
Southern History 58 (February 1992): 57–98.
20. Howard, Autobiography, 2:212–225, 247; William Cohen, “Black Immobility
and Free Labor: Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau and the Relocation of Black Labor, 1865–1868,”
Civil War History 30 (September 1984): 234; James C. Devine, Inspector, to J. T. Kirk-
man, A.A.A.G., July 22, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 5; Dallas Herald, November 17,
1866. For precedents during the war, see J. Th
omas May, “Continuity and Change in
the Labor Program of the Union Army and the Freedmen’s Bureau,” Civil War History
17 (September 1971): 245–254; and Willie Lee Rose, Rehearsal for Reconstruction: Th
e
Port Royal Experiment (Indianapolis: Bobbs- Merrill, 1964).
21. E. M. Gregory to Benjamin G. Harris, January 20, 1866, SAC, LS, October 1865–
March 1867, reel 1; Circular letter from E. M. Gregory, October 17, 1865, AC, LS, Sep-
tember 1865–March 1867, reel 1; E. M. Gregory to O. O. Howard, April 18, 1866, AC, LS,
September 1865–March 1867, reel 1; Roger L. Ransom and Richard Sutch, One Kind of
Freedom: Th
e Economic Consequences of Emancipation (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 2001), 15; Cohen- Lack, “A Struggle for Sovereignty,” 61, 97–98; James M.
Smallwood, Time of Hope, Time of Despair: Black Texans During Reconstruction (Port
Washington: Kennikat Press, 1981), 44; Robert Higgs, Competition and Coercion:
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 210
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 210
4/27/16 11:13 AM
4/27/16 11:13 AM
Notes to pages 39–40
211
Blacks in the American Economy, 1865–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1977), 80–100; Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas,
1528–1995 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995), 54–55; Campbell, Southern
Community in Crisis, 264. For paternalism and labor contract, see Laura F. Edwards,
“Th
e Problem of Dependency: African Americans, Labor Relations, and the Law in the
Nineteenth- Century South,” Agricultural History 72 (Spring 1998): 313–340; David S.
Leventhal, “ ‘Freedom to Work, Nothing More Nor Less’: Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau,
White Planters, and Black Contract Labor in Tennessee, 1865–1868,” Journal of East
Tennessee 78 (2006): 23–49; and Lee J. Alston and Joseph P. Ferrie, “Paternalism in
Agricultural Labor Contracts in the U.S. South: Implications for the Growth of the
Welfare State,” Th
e American Economic Review 83 (September 1993): 852–876.
22. Eugene Smith, Waco, to William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., May 1, 1866, AC, LR,
1866–1867, reel 8; [Speech by A. H. Mayer, December 26, 1866], AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel
7; William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., to John R. Sanford, February 17, 1866, AC, LS, Septem-
ber 1865–March 1867, reel 1; James L. Roark, Masters Without Slaves: Southern Planters
in the Civil War and Reconstruction (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1977), 139;
E. M. Gregory to O. O. Howard, October 31, 1865, AC, Letters Sent, September 1865–
March 1867, reel 1.
23. William H. Sinclair, Inspector, J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., February 26, 1867, AC,
LR, 1866–1867, reel 8; Steven Hahn, et al., eds., Freedom: A Documentary History of
Emancipation, 1861–1867, 309; Amy Dru Stanley, “Beggars Can’t Be Choosers: Compul-
sion and Contract in Postbellum America,” Journal of American History 78 (March
1992): 1283; [Speech by unknown agent], date unknown, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 1; Sam-
uel C. Sloan, Richmond, to Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.A.G, January 16, 1866, AC, LR,
1866–1867, reel 8; Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.A.G, to Samuel C. Sloan, Richmond, Janu-
ary 22, 1866, AC, LS, September 1865–March 1867, reel 1.
24. Isaac Johnson, La Grange, to E. M. Gregory, March 10, 1866, AC, ULR, 1865–
1866, reel 17; William H. Sinclair, Inspector, J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., February 26,
1867, AC, LR, 1866�
�1867, reel 8; Edward Miller, Victoria, to William H. Sinclair,
A.A.G., July 10, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 7; Cohen- Lack, “Struggle for Sover-
eignty,” 79; Jacob C. DeGress, Houston, to E. M. Gregory, November 3, 1865, AC, RRR,
1865–1866, reel 29. For freedmen contracting, see Jacob C. DeGress, Houston, to [E. M]
Gregory, November 1, 1865, AC, RRR, 1865–1866, reel 29; John T. Raper, Columbus, to
E. M. Gregory, November 29, 1865, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; George C. Abbott,
Hempstead, to E. M. Gregory, December 16, 1865, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; Eli W.
Green, Columbus, to Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.A.G, October 24, 1865, AC, ULR, 1865–
1866, reel 17; and Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.I.G., to William H. Sinclair, A.A.G, April 18,
1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 7. According to Randolph B. Campbell, approximately 5
to 6 percent left their former masters, the rest remained and worked (see An Empire for
Slavery: Th
e Peculiar Institution in Texas, 1821–1865 [Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Uni-
versity Press, 1989], 250–251). Students note the ambiguities of contract labor. Of these,
many castigate the contract: it precluded choice and economic freedom or pacifi ed the
workforce and reestablished the old system under “unreconstructed” former masters.
For more positive—or at least contextualized—works on contracts, see Hahn, et al.,
eds., Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861–1867, chapter 3; Rebecca
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 211
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 211
4/27/16 11:13 AM
4/27/16 11:13 AM
212
Notes to pages 40–41
Edwards, Angels in the Machinery: Gender in American Party Politics from the Civil
War to the Progressive Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997); Amy Dru Stan-
ley, From Bondage to Contract: Wage Labor, Marriage, and the Market in the Age of
Slave Emancipation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); and Charles H.
Wesley, Negro Labor in the United States, 1850–1925 (New York: Russell & Russell, 1967).
For critical works on the contract, see Lewis Nicholas Wynne, Th
e Continuity of Cot-
ton: Planter Politics in Georgia, 1865–1892 (Macon: Mercer University Press, 1986),
11–17; Lewis C. Chartock, “A History and Analysis of Labor Contracts Administered by
the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands in Edgefi eld, Abbeville and
Anderson Counties, South Carolina, 1865–1868” (Ph.D. diss., Bryn Mawr College,
1974); and Steven Engerrand, “Now Scratch or Die: Th
e Genesis of Capitalistic Agricul-
tural Labor in Georgia, 1865–1880” (Ph.D. diss., University of Georgia, 1981). For con-
cern about verbal contracts, see E. M. Gregory to O. O. Howard, December 9, 1865,
AC, LS, September 1865–March 1867, reel 1; and S. J. W. Mintzer, Surgeon in Chief, to
[E. M. Gregory], December 1, 1865, RRR, 1865–1866, reel 29. Northern racial beliefs are
in David Roediger, Th
e Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American
Working Class (New York: Verso, 1991); Kenneth C. White, “Wager Swayne: Racist or
Realist,” Alabama Review 31 (April 1978): 92–109; and George M. Fredrickson , Th
e
Black Image in the White Mind (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1971). To exam-
ine the diff erent racial views of agents and white planters, see Th
omas D. Morris,
“Equality, ‘Extraordinary,’ and Criminal Justice: Th
e South Carolina Experience, 1865–
1866,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 83 (January 1982): 31–32; William F. Mess-
ner, Freedmen and the Ideology of Free Labor: Louisiana 1862–1865 (Lafayette:
University of Southwestern Louisiana, 1978), 186; Frank V. Vandiver, “Some Problems
Involved in Writing Confederate History,” Journal of Southern History 36 (August
1970): 409; and Roberta Sue Anderson, “Presidential Reconstruction: Ideology and
Change,” in Th
e Facts of Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of John Hope Franklin, ed.
Eric Anderson and Alfred A. Ross, Jr. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press,
1991), 35. For the paradoxes and limitations of free labor and dissimilar visions of what
freedom meant, see Eric Foner, “Th
e Meaning of Freedom in the Age of Emancipa-
tion,” Journal of American History 81 (September 1994): 454–460; James D. Schmidt,
Free to Work: Labor Law, Emancipation, and Reconstruction, 1815–1860 (Athens: Uni-
versity of Georgia Press, 1998); and Nancy Fraser and Linda Gordon, “A Genealogy of
‘Dependency’: Tracing a Keyword of the US Welfare State,” Signs 19 (Winter 1994):
309–336. Contract resistance is in Ralph Shlomowitz, “Th
e Transition from Slave to
Freeman Labor Arrangements in Southern Agriculture, 1865–1870” (Ph.D. diss., Uni-
versity of Chicago, 1979), 31–35.
25. Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.I., to William H. Sinclair, Inspector, April 6, 1866, AC,
LR, 1866–1867, reel 7; Philip Howard, Meridian, to E. M. Gregory, March 22, 1866, AC,
LR, 1866–1867, reel 6; Joe M. Richardson, “An Evaluation of the Freedmen’s Bureau in
Florida,” Florida Historical Quarterly 41 (January 1963): 227; Elizabeth Bethel, “Th
e
Freedmen’s Bureau in Alabama,” Journal of Southern History 24 (February 1948): 56; H.
S. Johnson, Sumpter, to [Headquarters, 1867], AC, Letters Received, 1866–1867, reel 6.
26. Samuel C. Sloan, Richmond, to Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.A.G., February 28,
1866, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; Mortimer H. Goddin, Livingston, to J. T. Kirkman,
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 212
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 212
4/27/16 11:13 AM
4/27/16 11:13 AM
Notes to pages 41–43
213
A.A.A.G., July 20, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 5; Stanton Weaver to Sub Assistant
Commissioner, Jeff erson, April 5, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 9; Th
omas Affl
eck to
Charles Griffi
n, August 26, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 4; J. B. Kiddoo to [O. O. How-
ard], January 11, 1866, AC, LS, September 1865–March 1867, reel 1. Examples of compli-
ant planters are Philip Howard, Meridian, to J. B. Kiddoo, September 19, 1866, AC, LR,
1866–1867, reel 6; William H. Sinclair, Inspector, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., February
26, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 8; J. Bates to James F. Hutchison, Columbia, July 5,
1866, SAC, LR, January 1866–December 1868, reel 15; Aaron Coff ee to James F. Hutchi-
son, Columbia, September 2, 1866, SAC, LR, January 1866–December 1868, reel 15; and
Charles Power to E. M. Gregory, October 1865, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17.
27. O. O. Howard to E. M. Gregory, November 3, 1866, M742C, LS, May 16–Decem-
ber 1865, reel 1; Chad Alan Goldberg, Citizens and Paupers: Relief, Rights, and Race,
from the Freedmen’s Bureau to Workfare (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008),
40–41); S. J. W. Mintzer, Surgeon in Chief, to [E. M. Gregory], December 1, 1865, AC,
RRR, 1865–1866, reel 29; William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., to F. D. Inge, Leona, March 27,
1866, AC, LS, September 1865–March 1867, reel 1; George C. Abbott, Hempstead, to E.
M. Gregory, November 22, 1865, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; Dan T. Carter, When the
War Was
Over: Th
e Failure of Self- Reconstruction in the South, 1865–1867 (Baton Rouge:
Louisiana State University Press, 1985), 83; A. P. Delano, Marlin Falls, to Chauncey C.
Morse, A.A.I.G., February 14, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 5. Planters noticing benefi ts
of fair treatment, see W. H. Williams to E. M. Gregory, December 9, 1865, AC, ULR,
1865–1866, reel 17; P. H. Webster to [E. M.] Gregory, February 5, 1866, AC, ULR, 1865–
1866, reel 17.
28. Stanton Weaver, Crockett, to Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.A.G., January 27, 1866,
AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; William H. Sinclair, Inspector, to J. T. Kirkman,
A.A.A.G., March 1, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 8; William H. Sinclair, Inspector,
Galveston, to Henry A. Ellis, A.A.A.G., November 30, 1866, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel
17; William H. Rock, Richmond, to William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., August 9, 1866, AC,
LR, 1866–1867, reel 7; George C. Abbott, Hempstead, to E. M. Gregory, December 16,
1865, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; George C. Abbott, Hempstead, to E. M. Gregory,
January 16, 1866, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, 418.
29. Carpenter, “Agents of the Freedmen’s Bureau,” 27; William Longworth, Suther-
land Springs, to Captain, January 15, 1866, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; May, “Freed-
men’s Bureau at the Local Level,” 17; Lynda J. Morgan, Emancipation in Virginia
Tobacco’s Belt, 1850–1870 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 134; Chauncey C.
Morse, A.A.A.G., to Stanton Weaver, Crockett, January 15, 1866, AC, LR, 1865–1866,
reel 1; Stanton Weaver, Crockett, to Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.A.G., January 17, 1866,
AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; Stanton Weaver, Crockett, to Chauncey C. Morse,
A.A.A.G., February 13, 1866, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; Byron Porter, A.A.G., to John
T. Scott, Victoria, December 9, 1865, AC, LR, 1865–1866, reel 1; B. J. Arnold, Brenham,
to E. M. Gregory, October 30, 1865, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; Joseph Ferguson, San
Antonio, to William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., April 28, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 5;
Byron Porter, Austin, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., February 8, 1867, AC, Reports of
Operations and Conditions, December 1866–May 1867, reel 20 (hereaft er ROC); John
T. Raper, Columbus, to E. M. Gregory, November 29, 1865, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17.
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 213
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 213