1917
Page 50
11. Pipes, The Russian Revolution, 841.
12. Service, Lenin: A Biography, 335–36.
13. Ibid., 366; Pipes, The Russian Revolution, 806.
14. Service, Lenin: A Biography, 368.
15. Pipes, The Russian Revolution, 807.
16. Ibid., 813, 811.
17. Service, Lenin: A Biography, 376.
18. Johnson, Modern Times, 83.
19. Tooze, The Deluge, 238.
20. Ibid., 240.
21. Panne, The Black Book of Communism, 272–74.
22. Bradley, Russian Revolution, 159–61.
23. Service, Lenin: A Biography, 392.
24. Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography, 500.
25. Link, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 53: 531–33; 505–7.
26. MacMillan, Paris 1919, 8.
27. Striner, Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 174.
28. MacMillan, Paris 1919, 14; Hunter Miller, Drafting of the Covenant: History (New York: Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1969), 42; Seymour, The Intimate Papers of Colonel House, 23.
29. Striner, Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 175.
30. Nicolson, Peacemaking, 1919, 196–97.
31. Ibid., 242.
32. Taylor, Origins of the Second World War, 167–68.
33. MacMillan, Paris 1919, 23.
34. Ibid., 33.
35. Ibid., 33.
36. Taylor, Origins of the Second World War, 40.
37. MacMillan, Paris 1919, 23.
38. Nicolson, Peacemaking, 1919, 198.
39. MacMillan, Paris 1919, 93.
40. Striner, Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 175.
41. MacMillan, Paris 1919, 103–4.
42. Nicolson, Peacemaking, 1919, 164.
43. MacMillan, Paris 1919, 287; Striner, Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 179–80.
44. Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography, 563–64.
45. MacMillan, Paris 1919, 291–92.
46. Tooze, The Deluge, 96–97.
47. Ibid., 323.
48. MacMillan, Paris 1919, 317.
49. Link, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 58: 165.
50. MacMillan, Paris 1919, 340.
51. Link, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 58: 607–40.
52. Striner, Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 209.
53. MacMillan, Paris 1919, 465.
54. Taylor, Origins of the Second World War, 174.
55. Link, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 60: 71, 75–79.
56. Nicolson, Peacemaking, 1919, 368–71.
57. Bradley, Russian Revolution, 122.
58. Panne, The Black Book of Communism, 66.
59. Conquest, V. I. Lenin, 96.
60. Service, Trotsky: A Biography, 243–44.
61. Panne, The Black Book of Communism, 89.
62. Johnson, Modern Times, 71.
63. Robert Conquest, The Great Terror: A Reassessment (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 6.
CHAPTER 15. LAST ACT
1. Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography, 581.
2. Striner, Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 189.
3. Taylor, Origins of the Second World War, 168.
4. Johnson, Modern Times, 31.
5. MacMillan, Paris 1919, 94.
6. Ibid., 95.
7. Thomas Knock, To End All Wars (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 229.
8. Striner, Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 190.
9. Striner, Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 192.
10. Link, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 55: 313.
11. Edith Wilson, My Memoir (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1939), 245–46.
12. “Address to the Senate on the Versailles Peace Treaty,” July 10, 1919, in Link, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 61.
13. Link, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 61: 445–46.
14. Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography, 586–87.
15. Knock, To End All Wars, 229.
16. Garraty, Henry Cabot Lodge: A Biography, 362.
17. Frederick Lewis Allen, Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the 1920s (New York: Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2010), 24–25.
18. Striner, Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 221.
19. Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography, 587.
20. “Covenant of the League of Nations, 1919–24,” Primary Documents, firstworldwar.com, http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/leagueofnations.htm.
21. Striner, Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 222.
22. Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994), 50.
23. Knock, To End All Wars, 229.
24. Garraty, Henry Cabot Lodge: A Biography, 369–70.
25. Gene Smith, When the Cheering Stopped (New York: Morrow, 1964), 56.
26. Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography, 593.
27. Garraty, Henry Cabot Lodge: A Biography, 370.
28. Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography, 596.
29. “An Address in Convention Hall, Kansas City, September 6, 1919,” in Link, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 63: 66–67.
30. Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography, 597.
31. Striner, Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 226.
32. Ibid., 227.
33. Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography, 603.
34. Ibid., 606; Link, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 64: 177.
35. Striner, Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 228.
36. Link, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 64: 189; Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography, 609.
37. Smith, When the Cheering Stopped, 78–79; Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography, 609.
38. Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography, 610.
39. Garraty, Henry Cabot Lodge: A Biography, 374.
40. Ibid., 375.
41. “HCL to Root, September 29, 1919,” in Garraty, Henry Cabot Lodge: A Biography, 375.
42. Edith Wilson, My Memoir, 286–88.
43. Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography, 612.
44. Garraty, Henry Cabot Lodge: A Biography, 378.
45. Link, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 64: 28–30.
46. Ibid., 64, 44–46.
47. Henry Cabot Lodge, The Senate and the League of Nations (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1925), 215–16.
48. Link, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 64: 199–202.
49. The full story is contained in Gene Smith, When the Cheering Stopped, 85–178.
50. Johnson, Modern Times, 35.
51. Ibid., 34.
CONCLUSION
1. Johnson, Modern Times, 79.
2. Lenin, Collected Works, 26:352.
3. Johnson, Modern Times, 84.
4. Ibid., 84–85.
5. Panne, The Black Book of Communism, 109, 114–15.
6. “Left-wing Communism: An Infantile Disorder,” in Lenin, Collected Works, Vol. 31, 17–90.
7. Service, Lenin: A Biography, 445.
8. Ibid., 457.
9. Ibid., 468–69.
10. “Lenin’s Testament,” in Lenin, Collected Works 36, (1956): 593–611.
11. Service, Lenin: A Biography, 477.
12. Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography, 667.
13. Tooze, The Deluge, 339.
14. Ibid., 345.
15. Amity Schlaes, The Forgotten Man: A New History of the Great Depression (New York: Harper, 2007).
16. Johnson, Modern Times, 739n51.
17. Ian Kershaw, The “Hitler Myth”: Image and Reality in the Third Reich (Bethesda, MD: Oxford University Press, 2001), 426.
18. Johnson, Modern Times, 85.
19. Panne, The Black Book of Communism, 9–10.
20. Claire Sterling, The Terrorist Connection (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1981).
21. Taylor, Origins of the Second World War, 35.
22. Ibid., 35–36.
23. Adam Tooze, The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy (New York: Penguin Books, 2007), 7–11.
24. Powell, Wilson’s War.
/> 25. Morison, Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 824–25.
26. Tooze, The Deluge, 336.
27. Kissinger, Diplomacy, 55.
INDEX
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Acheson, Dean, 424–25
Addison, Christopher, 183
Africa
disposition of Germany’s former colonies and, 368–69, 370
German South Western Africa (today’s Namibia), 368
mandates vs. colonies in, 369
Ottoman Empire in, 311
Paris Peace Conference and, 368–70, 373
“self-determination” and, 61, 308
South Africa, 33, 212, 370
air war, 32
American planes lacking, 254
Battle of Cambrai and first air interdiction, 287
German air power, 212–14, 287
German bombing of Folkestone, 213
German bombing of London, 212, 213–14
German bombing of Petrograd, 324
modern age of strategic bombing, 213
Aisne, Battle of, 168, 169
Albert, Heinrich, 247
Alekseev, Mikhail, 133, 134–35, 203, 264, 315
Alexander I, Czar, 71, 72
Alexander II, Czar, 70–71, 72
Alexander III, Czar, 73, 136
Alexandra, Czarina, x, 43, 44–45, 117, 118, 119, 131, 134, 135
murder of, 336
Alexei, Czarevich, 135
Algonquin (ship), 130
Allenby, Edmund, ix, 165–66, 167, 313
Allies (Entente countries), 208, 323
Allied Supreme War Council formed, 286
American alliance with, 102, 103, 112, 115, 151, 186, 188, 288, 344
America as natural ally of, 4, 48
America entering the war, 6, 15, 34, 152–53, 186, 244, 428
America entering the war, Zimmermann telegram and, 3–7, 105, 110, 112–13
American (Wilson’s) influence on terms of peace, 339–42 (see also Paris Peace Conference)
American neutrality and, 4–5, 6, 14–15, 49, 51, 60, 96, 101, 128, 397
American support, economic and material, 25, 34, 51, 55, 60–61, 199, 247, 253, 288, 327
American trade with, 24, 49, 51
American troops and, 174, 288, 327
Bethmann-Hollweg negotiated peace offer (Dec. 12, 1916) and, 22, 25, 29–30, 33, 37, 38, 52
blockade of Germany, 23–24, 51, 346, 367, 376
Calais summit, 164
collapse of Italy, Romania, and Russia, 276–77
combined offensive (Champagne Offensive), 164
countries of, 9, 339
debt to America defaulted on, 425
as defenders of civilization, 4, 54, 115, 303, 304
as democracies, 143
Foch’s Offensive, and German request for armistice, 337–42
German submarine warfare and, 4, 28, 99, 105, 174–75
Italy and, 21, 370 (see also Treaty of London)
Japan and, 3, 107, 111, 112, 324, 330, 331, 332, 333, 335, 345, 372
lack of coordination among, 32, 107, 108
national self-determination and, 57, 61, 207, 304, 340
Paris inter-Allied conference (Dec. 1, 1917), 289
Petrograd meeting (Jan.-Feb. 1917), 55, 105–9
Rapallo, Italy strategic conference, 275, 286
Romania joins, 21
Russia and, 9, 16, 105–9, 138, 204, 206, 210, 222, 223, 275, 277, 278, 287, 288, 289, 319, 321, 323, 324, 345
Russia and, Allied intervention with Bolsheviks, 330–37, 345, 356, 378–79
secret treaties of, 189–90, 301, 312
separate peace with Austria and, 289–92
Spanish flu and, 345
Sykes-Picot Agreement, 189, 312
Treaty of London, 189, 301, 368, 370, 371
Trotsky publishes secret documents of, 301–3, 312
war aims, 53, 55–56, 188, 190, 204, 303, 305, 340
Wilson’s assumption of world leadership and, 60–61 (see also Paris Peace Conference)
Wilson’s Fourteen Points and, 305–10, 340
Wilson’s moral equivalence of the Allies with the Central Powers, 54
Wilson’s peace note (December 18, 1916) and, 54
Wilson’s warning message to Russia (May 22, 1917), 205–6
Wilson’s globalist vision and, 275, 288
See also Britain; France; specific battles; specific countries
All-Russian Congress of Soviets, 267, 272, 280, 282
choosing a new government, 283
Decree on Land, 282, 283
Decree on Peace, 282, 283
Al Qaeda, 424
Alsace-Lorraine, 56, 256, 343, 376
Wilson’s war aims and, 309
America and the World War (T. Roosevelt), 48
American Civil War, 66–67, 71, 152, 153, 366
conscription and, 187–88
American Defense Society, 246
American exceptionalism, 59, 396, 430
American Expeditionary Force (AEF)
Battle of Argonne Forest, 338–39, 343
Battle of Belleau Wood, 338
Battle of St. Mihiel, 338
black soldiers in, 193
casualties, 339, 349
control of, 288
First Division, 211
Foch’s command of, 328
Pershing arrives in Paris, 211
Pershing as commander for, 192, 193
size of, 174, 341, 343, 425
supply and transportation system, 288
training of recruits, 288
troops in France, 327
American Federation of Labor (AFL), 243
American Protective League (APL), 242
targets German-Americans, 246, 248
Amiens, Battle of, 337–38
April Theses (Lenin), 146, 207, 209
Argonne Forest, Battle of, 338–39, 343
Armand, Inessa, x, 156
Armentières, Battle of, 328
Arras, 35, 164, 165
Ashurst, Henry, 354, 390–91
Attack in Position Warfare, The (Geyer), 326
Australia, 369
Paris Peace Conference and, 368
Wilson and, 348
Austria-Hungary, 235, 289–92
Allied demands for, 56
alliance with Germany, 20, 29
assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and, 47
Brusilov Offensive shatters, 20–21
Central Powers and, 21
death of Franz Josef and, 290
disavowal of submarine warfare, 149
Eastern Front and, 20
food riots, 290
as Great Power, 12
Habsburg Empire and, 12, 21, 56, 289, 291, 292, 309, 329, 330, 334–35
labor strikes in, 323
lack of war readiness, 290
member nations claim independence, 342
Russia’s Kerensky Offensive and, 224
a separate peace and, 289–92
Serbia and, 290
war’s economic strain on, 6, 290–91
Wilson and a negotiated settlement, 291–92
Wilson’s war aims and, 309
Baker, Newton, 49, 375
Roosevelt’s offer to raise a division of volunteers refused, 190, 191
as Secretary of War, 143
Baker, Ray Stannard, 66, 353, 366
balance of power
Article 10 and, 395–96
proponents of, 365, 366, 397
Wilson and concept of, 53, 150, 344, 362, 365, 396–97
World War I and, 6, 7, 12, 100, 102, 211, 235, 428
Balanchine, George, 412
Balfour, Arthur James, ix, 277, 313, 341
Jewish national home in Palestine and, 313–14
visit to the U.S. and meeting with Wilson (April 1917), 18
8–89
white supremacy and, 373
Wilson’s warning message to the Russian people (May 22, 1917) and, 205
Zimmermann telegram and, 113
Balfour Declaration, 313–14
Balkan states, 301, 309, 312, 370
Baltic states, 22, 224, 262, 321, 322, 343, 356, 412
Bannwart, Alexander, 152
Baruch, Bernard, 196, 242
Belgium, 37, 53, 55, 214–15
German atrocities in, 237
German drive to France and, 19
German invasion of, 27
Wilson’s war aims and, 309
See also specific battles
Beliaev, M. A., 117
Bellamy, Edward, 85
Belleau Wood, Battle of, 338
Below, Otto von, 276
Bern, Switzerland, 153, 154, 155
Bernstein, Eduard, 90, 132
Evolutionary Socialism, 79–80
Bernstorff, Johann von, ix, 3, 103, 105
official declaration of unrestricted U-boat warfare and, 101
Wilson’s peace note (Dec. 18, 1916) and, 59
Wilson’s threat to join the Allies and, 5–6
Zimmermann telegram and, 111, 114
Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von, ix, 40, 216, 235, 341
abetting Lenin, 145
American entrance into the war and, 28
Battle of Verdun and, 20
criticism of the Kaiser, 100
death of, 420
nadir of 1916, 21
negotiated peace offer (Dec. 12, 1917), 19, 22, 25–26, 28–30, 38, 52–53, 59
ousting of, 218–19
submarine warfare and, 27, 28, 98, 99–100
bin Laden, Osama, 146–47
Bismarck, Otto von, 17, 19, 69
Blank, Alexander, 70, 77
Blank, Maria Alexandrovna, 69, 70
estate at Kokushkino, 77
Bliss, Tasker, 353
Blum, Oscar, 155
Boer War, 212
Bogdanov, A. A., xi, 92, 93, 118
Bogdanov, B., 131
Bolsheviks/Bolshevik Party, 81, 90–91, 94–95, 119–20, 379
on “agrarian question,” 209
becomes Communist Party, 297
Brest-Litovsk Treaty and, 324–25
brutality of, 296, 310, 317
Cheka and, 316–17
Congress of the Bolshevik Party, 324
control of Russia, 315, 356
Council of People’s Commissars, 293, 296, 300
coup (July Days), 229–30, 232–33
as criminal organization, 94
elections and, 228, 297–98
fighting the “enemies of the people,” 294–95
German funding of, 228
goal of proletarian revolution, 140, 159, 208, 271–72
Kerensky’s opinion of, 263
Kschessinska Mansion meeting, 209
Lenin as leader, 140, 209, 228
Lenin’s critics in, 208