1917
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Lenin’s plan to overthrow the Provisional Government and, 206
Lenin’s strategy for, 161
on the “national question,” 209
new Russian government and, 283–84
popular support of, 265–66
power concentrated in, 297
Red Guards and, 281, 294, 317, 318, 319
“revolutionary terror of the masses” by, 316
saved by war, 95
seizure of power in Moscow and Great Russia, 292–93
size of, 95, 293
slogan and goal of ending the war, 209
on socialist dictatorship, 209
Trotsky and, 226, 267, 270
See also Lenin
Bolshevik Revolution (October Revolution), 259–74
Wilson and, 303–5, 306, 308, 310
Bonar Law, Andrew, ix, 33
Bonch-Bruevich, Vladimir, 227, 316
Borah, William, 392–93, 394, 395, 396, 402
Bourne, Randolph, 234, 236, 237
Bradley, John, 331
Brandegee, Frank, 387
Brands, H. W., 64
Briand, Aristide, x, 35, 37, 54, 109
Bright, John, 67
Britain
Allied coordination lacking, 32
American investors and loans, 25, 36, 199
American trade with, 24, 49
American troops and, 212
Anglo-American relations, 174–75, 182
Bethmann-Hollweg negotiated peace offer (Dec. 12, 1916), 30, 33
Big Push, 162
casualties, 20, 31, 349
codebreaking, 1–7
cost of war, 30
eclipsed by America as global power, 185
empire of, 19, 30, 56
entrance into war as French ally, 19
fighting in the Middle East, 312
Fourteen Points and, 352
German armistice terms and, 343–44
German bombing of, 212, 213–14
German U-boats attacking shipping and, 99, 174, 177–79
as Great Power, 12
Japanese loans to, 372
labor unrest, 214
Labour Party, 33, 175
merchant shipbuilding program, 177
Ministry of Shipping created, 177
mobilization of men and manufacture, 32–33
Petrograd formula for ending the war and, 214
post-war debt, 199
regulation of bars and pubs, 176–77
“self-determination” and, 207–8
shortages in, 181
size of military, 19
“special relationship” with the U.S., 182, 183, 184
suffragette movement, 175–76
Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916 and, 189–90, 301–2
threat of socialist revolution, 214
total war and, 162
Treaty of London of 1915 and, 189–90, 301, 370
war’s economic strain on, 6
Wilson’s peace note (Dec. 18, 1916) and, 54
women in the war effort, 33, 175–76
Zionism and Jewish national homeland, 312–14
See also Haig, Douglas; Lloyd George, David; specific people
British Expeditionary Force (BEF) or British Army
Battle of Amiens and, 337–38
Battle of Vimy Ridge and, 165–66, 167
casualties, 167
Fifth Army, 326
First Army, 167
in France, 31
Haig as commander, 212
lesson of Cambrai, 337
Lewis machine gun, 253
Somme offensive, 20, 21, 25, 30, 36, 211
Stokes mortar and, 34
Third Army, 167
Ypres Offensive, 214–16, 219, 285–86
See also specific battles
British Naval Intelligence
Admiralty House, Room 40, codebreaking, 1–7, 110–11, 112, 124
Zimmermann telegram and, 3–7, 105, 110, 112–13
British Navy (Royal Navy)
blockade of Germany, 23–24, 51, 346, 367, 376
convoy system and, 178, 179–81, 215
German armistice signing and, 344
hydrophones and depth charges, 179
as world’s most powerful oceangoing force, 23
Bronski, M. G., 139
Brusilov, Aleksei, xi, 20, 135
Brusilov Offensive, 20–21, 22, 223
Bryan, William Jennings, 49, 114, 404, 428
as Democratic presidential nominee, 86
as Secretary of State, 49, 58
as Wilson critic, 113
Wilson’s “peace without victory” speech and, 58
Bryn Mawr College, 69
Buchanan, Sir George, 256, 273
Buffalo Soldiers, 193
Bulgaria, 21, 29, 53, 299, 342
Bullitt, William, 362, 402
Burke, Edmund, 67
Burleson, Albert, 244–45, 251
California (ship), 109–10
Cambon, Jules, 364
Cambrai, Battle of, 286–87
air interdiction in, 287
casualties, 287
tanks and anti-tank artillery, 286–87
Canada, 178
Battle of Vimy Ridge and, 165–66
casualties, 167
League of Nations and, 405
capitalism, 13, 77, 244
America as symbol of, 225, 413
bourgeois class of, 7–8, 13, 89
evolutionary socialism and, 79–80
inevitability of war and, 62, 95
Jews as symbols of, 360
Lenin’s view of and strategy for destroying, 62–63, 79, 89, 159, 209, 261, 262, 266, 301, 413
Marxist revolution and, 8, 13, 73, 76, 89, 209
Wilson blames Russian Revolution on, 417–18
Caporetto, Battle of, 275–76, 289, 372
Cardona, Luigi, 276
Carpathian Mountains, 20, 137
Carranza, José Venustiano, 111–12
Caruso, Enrico, 198
Castelnau, Édouard de Curières de, 105, 109
Castro, Fidel, 146, 382, 423
Catherine the Great, 71
Cecil, Robert, 384
Central Powers
as autocracies, 143
Brest-Litovsk peace negotiations and, 299–300, 307, 310, 313, 320–23
Brest-Litovsk Treaty, 324–25
capitulation of, 342
countries of, 21, 53
Eastern Front and, 32
negotiated peace offer (Dec. 12, 1917), 19, 22, 25–26, 28–30, 38, 52–53, 59
Turkey/Turkish Empire and, 311, 312
Wilson’s moral equivalence with the Allies, 54
Wilson’s peace note (Dec. 18, 1916) and, 54
See also Austria-Hungary; Germany; specific countries
Chagall, Marc, 412
Chamberlain, George, 255
Chamberlain, Neville, 421
Champagne Offensive, 31, 35
Chemin des Dames, 164
Chaplin, Charlie, 198
Charles, Emperor, 290, 291, 292
Chávez, Hugo, 423
Chernov, Viktor, 93, 230, 319, 412
Chernyshevsky, Nikolai, 73
What Is to Be Done? 73–74
China, 104
anti-Western and anti-Japanese rioting, 373
Communism and, 426, 427
Lenin’s influence, 423
Mao Zedong and, 146, 298, 382, 423
May Fourth Movement, 373–74
militarized, 429
as one-party or dual state, 297, 298
Paris Peace Conference and, 363, 372–73
Shandong Peninsula and, 372–73, 403
terrorism and, 424
Wilson and, 67
Chkheidze, Nikolai, xi, 46, 131, 132, 156, 161, 200, 207, 228
as exile, 412
on Lenin, 208
return of Lenin and, 158
Churchill, Winston, ix, 345
Big Three and, 421
de Gray and, 421n
Gallipoli Campaign and, 31, 183–84
Iron Curtain speech, 182, 184
Lloyd George and, 183–84, 421
Ministry of Munitions and, 184
Paris Peace Conference and, 378
in Royal Fusiliers, 183
on Russian intervention, 378
World War II and prime minister, 421
World War II and U.S. Lend Lease program, 185
Citizens Protective League, 242
City of Memphis (ship), 130, 142, 151
Clark, Frank, 275, 303
Clemenceau, Georges, x, 36, 303, 339, 363
assassination attempt against, 365, 367
background, 366
on balance of power, 365, 366
Bolshevik takeover in Russia and, 277–78
Fourteen Points and, 365
France’s relationship with Anglo-Saxon allies and, 36–37, 366
Italy and, 371
League of Nations and, 387–88
needs from the Americans, 289
Paris Peace Conference and, 364, 365–66, 371
preventing a future war and, 37, 366
as prime minister, 277
on Russian intervention, 378
Treaty of Versailles and, 367
vision for international organization, 429
Wilson and, 37, 150, 277, 365–67
Cobb, Frank, 151
Coffin, Howard, 194–95
Cold War, 12, 17, 335, 427, 429, 430
communism
in China, 297, 424, 426, 427
in Cuba, 297
failure of, 414
in Germany, 360
in Hungary, 360, 361
international working-class movement and, 62, 427
Kerensky’s prediction, 18
Lenin and, 261, 262, 266, 316, 324, 356, 358, 413, 424
Lenin’s Imperialism and, 61–62
Lenin’s “war communism,” 316, 379, 413
in North Korea, 297
Soviet Union and, 316, 325, 411, 412, 413, 416, 423
as world revolutionary movement, 12
See also Marx, Karl
Communist Manifesto, The (Marx), 8, 76, 77, 424
Communist Party. See Russian Communist Party
Congress of the Socialist International, 90, 92
Conquest, Robert, 94
Constitutional Democrats (Kadets), 108, 121, 137, 266, 298
newspaper of, 317
Constitutional Government in the United States (Wilson), 68, 69, 84
Coolidge, Calvin, 402, 419
Cottin, Émile, 365
Creel, George, xii, 237–41, 355
Wilson and the Issues, 237
“Crisis Has Ripened, The” (Lenin), 269
Croly, Herbert, 58, 85, 198
Crowder, Enoch, 188
Cuba, 62, 191
as one-party or dual state, 297, 423
Curzon, Lord George, 33, 184, 212
Czech Legion, 329–31, 334–35, 358
Czechoslovakia, 56, 334, 335, 342, 374
Daniels, Josephus, 181, 194
D’Annunzio, Gabriele, 372
Dardanelles, 31
Das Kapital (Marx), 8, 89
Debs, Eugene V., xii, 225, 237, 410
indictment and jailing of, 245
Sedition Act and, 244
Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia (Lenin), 300, 301
de Gaulle, Charles, 421
de Gray, Nigel “the Door Mouse,” 1–2, 3, 6, 7, 105, 421n
death of, 421n
Democratic Party
League of Nations vote and, 393, 394, 405, 406, 407–8, 409, 410
midterm defeats (1918), 347, 352, 354
presidential election defeats, 86, 410
Wilson’s political career and presidential election (1912) and, 87–88
Wilson as N.J. governor, 86–87
Wilson’s alienation of Congress and, 393
Wilson’s legacy and, 425
Wilson’s vision and, 87
Denikin, Anton, xii, 356, 361, 412
Denman, William, 252
Development of Capitalism in Russia, The (Lenin), 76–77, 79
Devils, The (Dostoevsky), 73, 89
Dewey, John, 239
Dickinson, Emily, 416
Dostoevsky, Fyodor, The Devils, 73, 89
Doumergue, Gaston, 107, 108, 109
Duan Qirui, 372
Du Bois, W. E. B., 394
Durnovo, Pyotr, 46
Dzerzhinsky, Felix (Feliks), 295, 316–17, 381
Eastman, Max, 245
Economic Consequences of the Peace (Keynes), 366
Edison, Thomas Alva, 194
Engels, Friedrich, 79
Enlightenment, 71
Erzberger, Matthias, ix, 218, 257, 343, 344
The League of Nations: The Way to the World’s Peace, 343
signs the armistice, 346
Estonia, 300, 356, 361, 379, 380
Europe
America’s entry into the Great War and, 235
French Revolution and, 15
Great Powers of, 12, 47, 59, 235, 368, 369
power of government and, 235
redrawing and postwar map, 23, 342–43
Russia as potential colossus of, 39
Spanish flu and, 345
traditional concepts of power and policy, 12
See also Allies; Central Powers; specific countries
Evolutionary Socialism (Bernstein), 79
Ewing, Alfred, 2
Falkenhayn, Erich von, ix, 25, 28
Battle of Vimy Ridge and, 166
crushes Romania, 21–22
Farewell to Arms, A (Hemingway), 276
fascism, 244
February Revolution (Mar., 1917), 116–23, 130–31, 138, 161, 203
Lenin and, 118–19, 123, 139–41, 207
Federal Fuel Administration, 196–97
daylight savings time and, 197
Federal Reserve Act, 96
Federal Trade Commission, 96
Finland, 157, 300, 356, 425
Fiume, 374
Flaxerman, Galina, 271
Foch, Ferdinand, x, 64, 215, 286, 327, 328
German armistice signing and, 344, 346
master strategy, final war offensive, 337–39
“soul on fire” statement, 422
tank warfare and, 286–87
Ford, Henry, 254
Forward (Forverts), 225, 238, 245
Founding Fathers, 85
Fouquier-Tinville, Antoine-Quentin, 316
Fourteen Points, 305–10, 336
as basis for German armistice, 339, 340, 347
Japan and, 373
League of Nations and, 309, 374, 385
as the new diplomacy, 370
Nicolson and, 350
Paris Peace Conference and, 352, 354, 355, 370, 373, 374
Treaty of Versailles and, 377
France
Alsace-Lorraine and, 56, 309, 343, 376
American loans to, 36
American trade with, 24
American troops and, 174, 254, 288
Arras Offensive, 35
Bethmann-Hollweg negotiated peace offer (Dec. 12, 1916) and, 34, 37
Bolshevik takeover in Russia and, 277–78
casualties, 31, 35
Champagne Offensive of, 31, 35
devastation of, 36
economic crisis in, 36
empire of, 56
Fourteen Points and, 352
German armistice terms and, 343–44
German attack on, 19
as Great Power, 12, 163, 173–74
Japanese loans to, 372
lack of coordination with Allies, 32
need for American entrance into war, 34, 36
Nivelle Offensive, 162–65, 234
in Russia, helping the war effort, 331
Russian debt held by, 277–78
“self
-determination” and, 207–8
size of military, 20
Sykes-Picot Agreement and, 189, 301–2
Treaty of London and, 370
Treaty of Versailles and, 375, 376
war’s economic strain on, 6
Wilson’s peace proposal and, 54
Wilson’s reception in, 361–62
See also Clemenceau, Georges; Foch, Ferdinand; French Army; Paris Peace Conference; specific battles
Franco-Prussian War, 56, 221, 286
Hall of Mirrors at Palace of Versailles and, 375
Frankfurter, Felix, 243
Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria-Hungary, 47
Franz Josef, Emperor, 95, 290, 291
French Army, 36
army mutinies, 169–71, 172, 212, 286
artillery of, 163–64, 168
Champagne Offensive of, 31, 35
Chemin des Dames, 167–68, 170
Eighteenth Infantry Regiment, 170
First Colonial Infantry Division, 169
as inactive, 212
Nivelle Offensive and, 164
Pétain and reforms, 173, 174
Second Army, 172
Second Colonial Division, 170
Tenth Army, 338
Third Army, 338
Verdun and, 37, 171, 172
French Revolution, 15, 139, 227, 263
Paris Commune, 265
Reign of Terror, 317
Fuss, Richard, 99
Galacia, 47
Gallipoli Campaign, 2, 31, 312
casualties, 31
Ganetskii, Jacob (aka Fürstenberg), 228, 230, 232
Garfield, Harry, 196–97
Gaunt, Guy, 105, 126
Geddes, Sir Eric, 177, 181
Geneva, 78, 93
George V, King of England, 54
George Washington (ship), 354–55, 361, 363–64
Gerard, James, 104, 105
German Air Force (Luftwaffe), 212–14
bombing of London, 212, 213–14, 367
Gotha IV biplane bomber, 213
zeppelin airships, 213
German Army (Wehrmacht)
artillery-fire control, 326
Big Bertha, 328
“the blackest day,” 337, 338
blitzkrieg, 276
Rommel’s quick-infiltration tactics, 276, 326
soldiers surrendering, 338
Stosstruppen (Stormtroopers), 326
See also Ludendorff, Erich; specific battles
German Navy (Imperial German Navy), 49
blockade of Britain and, 26
Britain’s goal of surrender of, 343
High Seas Fleet, 343, 367
mutiny in, 222, 342
sinking of Kitchener’s ship, 31
sinking of the Laconia, 114
sinking of the Leinster, 341
sinking of the Lusitania, 5, 27, 48, 51, 67, 129, 186, 194
sinking of the Sussex, 104
submarine warfare, 3, 6, 26–27, 51, 60, 99–100, 109–10, 162, 174, 221, 367
tonnage sunk by, 27, 100, 109, 174
U-boats, 2, 26, 98–99
U-boats, bases, 215
U-boats, fleet, size, 99
U.S. ships or American passengers killed and, 109–10, 114, 130, 142, 341