The Longest August
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2. Penderel Moon, ed., Wavell: The Viceroy’s Journal (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 406.
3. Patrick French, Liberty or Death: India’s Journey to Independence and Division (London: HarperCollins, 1997), 334, citing The Mountbatten Viceroyalty, Princes, Partition, and Independence, 8 July–15 August 1947, vol. 12 in Constitutional Relations Between Britain and India: The Transfer of Power 1942–7, ed. Nicholas Mansergh (London: HMSO, 1970–1983), 214.
4. “Note by Sir E. Jenkins,” April 16, 1947, https://sites.google.com/site/cabinetmissionplan /punjab-february---march-1947.
5. General Sir Frank Messervy, “Some Remarks on the Disturbances in the Northern Punjab,” in The Fixing of a Time Limit, 4 November 1946–22 March 1947, vol. 9 in Mansergh, ed., Constitutional Relations Between Britain and India, 898–899.
6. Cited in Ayesha Jalal, The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 245–246n1.
7. Louis Fischer, The Life of Mahatma Gandhi (London: Granada, 1982), 577.
8. Cited in Louis Fischer, Gandhi: His Life and Message for the World (New York: Mentor Books, 1954), 171.
9. Fischer, Gandhi, 173.
10. French, Liberty or Death, 302.
11. Cited in Fischer, Gandhi, 170.
12. Ian A. Talbot, “Jinnah and the Making of Pakistan,” History Today 34, no. 2 (1984).
13. Transcript of Muhammad Ali Jinnah’s speech of June 3, 1947, released by All India Radio, Delhi, http://omarrquraishi.blogspot.co.uk/2013/09/transcript-of-mohammad-ali-jinnahs.html.
14. “The Plan of June 3, 1947,” Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah (blog), 2008, http://m-a-jinnah .blogspot.co.uk/2010/04/plan-of-june-3-1947.html.
15. Alex von Tunzelmann, Indian Summer: The Secret History of the End of an Empire (London: Simon & Schuster, 2008), 203.
16. Cited by French, Liberty or Death, 306.
17. “Sylhet Referendum 1947,” Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh, 2012, http://www .banglapedia.org/HT/S_0653.htm.
18. Muhammad Iqbal Chawla, “Mountbatten and the NWFP Referendum: Revisited,” Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan 48, no. 1 (2011).
19. The Congress-dominated cabinet decided to retain the name India, discarding the option of Hindustan as a counterpoint to Pakistan.
20. The Mountbatten Viceroyalty, Princes, Partition, and Independence, 512.
21. By June 1947, the British troops in India numbered only four thousand.
22. Cited in Rajmohan Gandhi, Understanding the Muslim Mind (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2000), 175.
23. A. Read and D. Fisher, The Proudest Day: India’s Long Road to Independence (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), 490.
24. The Mountbatten Viceroyalty, Princes, Partition, and Independence, 475, 709.
25. “Mr. Jinnah’s Presidential Address to the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, August 11, 1947,” http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/legislation/constituent_address_11aug1947.html.
26. Lionel Baixas, “Thematic Chronology of Mass Violence in Pakistan, 1947–2007: Mass Violence Related to the State’s Formation,” Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence, June 27, 2008, http://www .massviolence.org/Thematic-Chronology-of-Mass-Violence-in-Pakistan-1947-2007.
27. M. J. Akbar, India: The Siege Within (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books, 1985), 146.
28. “On This Day: India Gains Independence from Britain,” Finding Dulcinea, August 15, 2011, http://www.findingdulcinea.com/news/on-this-day/July-August-08/On-this-Day--India-Gains-Independence -from-Britain.html.
29. Von Tunzelmann, Indian Summer, 236.
30. Baixas, “Mass Violence Related to the State’s Formation.”
31. But it was only in 1998 that Train to Pakistan was made into a movie.
32. Ramchandra Guha, India After Gandhi: The History of the World’s Largest Democracy (London: Macmillan, 2007 / New York: Harper Perennial, 2008), 15n19.
33. Cited in by Z. H. Zaidi, ed., Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah Papers: Volume I (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 459.
34. Times of India, September 10, 1947.
35. The figure of 330,000 comprised 90 percent of the Muslim residents of New Delhi and 60 percent of Old Delhi’s.
36. Sunil Khilnani, The Idea of India (London: Penguin Books / New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1998), 31.
37. Cited in von Tunzelmann, Indian Summer, 280.
38. Sankar Ghose, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography (Bombay: Allied, 1993), 170–171.
39. Ghose, Jawaharlal Nehru, 170–171.
40. Alan Campbell-Johnson, Mission with Mountbatten (London: Robert Hale, 1951), 200–201.
41. Cited in by Zaidi, Quaid-i-Azam, 476.
42. Col. Dr. Dalvinder Singh Grewal, “The Making of Refugees,” SikhNet, February 28, 2013, http://www.sikhnet.com/news/making-refugees.
43. Cited in Guha, India After Gandhi, 15.
44. Kuldip Nayar, Beyond the Lines: An Autobiography (New Delhi: Roli Books, 2012), 10.
45. Martin Frost, “Frost’s Meditations: Partition of India,” August 2007, http://www.essaysyards .blogspot.com/2011/06/frosts-meditations.html.
46. Richard Symonds, In the Margins of Independence: A Relief Worker in India and Pakistan, 1942–1947 (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2001), 116.
47. Von Tunzelmann, Indian Summer, 279.
48. Ibid., 280.
Chapter 6: The Infant Twins at War
1. Z. G. Muhammad, “Stories Retold: Of Some Historical Narratives About Kashmir,” Punchline, March 11, 2013, http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/2013/Mar/11/stories-retold-27.asp.
2. The year 1934 saw the launching of the first English-language weekly, the Kashmir Times, a decade after the founding of the Hindi newspaper Ranbir in Jammu.
3. In his autobiography, Shaikh Muhammad Abdullah revealed that his grandfather was a Hindu named Ragho Ram Kaul.
4. Soon after, the Congress Party set up the All India States People’s Conference to agitate for democratic representation in the princely states.
5. Victoria Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War, rev. ed. (London: I. B. Tauris, 2003), 41.
6. Jagmohan, My Frozen Turbulence in Kashmir, 8th ed. (New Delhi: Allied, 2007), 78.
7. Alarmed by the rising protest against his regime, the maharaja refrained from integrating soldiers demobilized after World War II into his army.
8. Jagmohan, My Frozen Turbulence in Kashmir, 78.
9. Christopher Snedden, “The Forgotten Poonch Uprising of 1947,” Eye on Kashmir 643 (March 2013), http://www.india-seminar.com/2013/643/643_christopher_snedden.htm.
10. Ian Stephens, Pakistan (London: Ernest Benn, 1963), 200.
11. Cited in “Tribal Invasion: An American Reportage,” Kashmir Sentinel, 2012, http://kashmir sentinel.org/tribal-invasion-an-american-reportage.
12. Cited in Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict, 43.
13. Snedden, “The Forgotten Poonch Uprising.”
14. Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict, 46.
15. Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict, 46, citing Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah: Speeches and Statements, 1947–1948 (Karachi: Government of Pakistan, 1989), 91–92.
16. Alex Von Tunzelmann, Indian Summer: The Secret History of the End of an Empire (London: Simon & Schuster, 2008), 288.
17. Chaudhuri Muhammad Ali, The Emergence of Pakistan (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967), 292.
18. Cited in Khalid Hasan, “The Other Khurshid Anwar,” Friday Times (Lahore), February 11, 2005.
19. “27 October 1947,” Truth by KBaig (blog), October 26, 2013, http://www.truthbykbaig.com /2013/10/27-october-1947-day-when-indian-forces.html.
20. J. C. Aggarwal and S. Agrawal, Modern History of Jammu and Kashmir: Ancient Times to Shimla Agreem
ent (New Delhi: Concept, 1995), 41–43.
21. India’s commander in chief, General Sir Robert Lockhart, was also subordinate to Field Marshall Sir Claude Achinleck.
22. Cited in “Tribal Invasion.”
23. “Chapter VI: Pacific Settlement of Disputes,” Charter of the United Nations, http://www .un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter6.shtml.
24. Dr. Justice Adrarsh Sein Anand, “Accession of Kashmir—Historical & Legal Perspective,” Supreme Court Cases 4, no. 11 (1996), http://www.ebc-india.com/lawyer/articles/96v4a2.htm.
25. John Connell, Auchinleck: A Critical Biography: A Biography of Field-Marshal Sir Claude Auchinleck, 2nd ed. (London: Cassell, 1959), 920.
26. See Chapter 5, p. 110.
27. Prof. Dr. Yogendra Yadav, “The Facts of Rs 55 Crores and Mahatma Gandhi,” Peace & Collaborative Development Network, September 16, 2012, http://www.internationalpeaceandconflict.org /profiles/blogs/the-facts-of-55-crores-and-mahatma-gandhi.
28. Dilip Simeon, “Gandhi’s Final Fast,” Akshay Bakaya’s Blog, March 22, 2010, http://www.gandhi topia.org/profiles/blogs/gandhis-final-fast-by-dilip.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. Because the Indian government made its decision during Mahatma Gandhi’s fast, some historians have wrongly attributed his fasting to the issue of the cash payable to Pakistan.
32. “Gandhi Shot Dead,” Hindu, January 31, 1948.
33. Nathuram Vinayak Godse was convicted as the killer of Mahatma Gandhi and his chief coplotter, Narayan Dattatraya Apte, as the leader of the assassination team. Both received the death penalty and were hanged at the central jail in Ambala, East Punjab, on November 15, 1949.
34. Responding to the reports of the RSS killing Muslims, Vallabhbhai Patel expressed his favorable opinion of the RSS on January 8 and added, “You cannot crush an organization by using danda [a stick].” He considered the reports of its violent activities as “somewhat exaggerated.” Patrick French, Liberty or Death: India’s Journey to Independence and Division (London: HarperCollins, 1997), 359–360.
35. See Chapter 1, p. 11.
36. “Quaid-i-Azam Corner, Jinnah’s Condolence Message on the Death of Gandhi,” Republic of Rumi, January 30, 1948, http://pakistanspace.tripod.com/archives/jinnah19480130.htm.
37. “Jinnah’s Speech to Sind Bar Association, Karachi,” Dawn (Karachi), January 26, 1948.
38. Jinnah of Pakistan, “Speeches & Statements: Selfless Devotion to Duty,” Humsafar.info, n.d., http://www.humsafar.info/480221_sel.php.
39. Muhammad Ali Chaudhri, The Emergence of Pakistan (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967), 297.
40. By early April 1948 India had transferred only one-sixth of the share Pakistan was entitled to. It failed to deliver any of the 249 tanks allocated to Pakistan. Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema, The Armed Forces of Pakistan (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 18.
41. “Resolution 47 (1948),” https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kashun47.htm.
42. Cited in Stanley Wolpert, Jinnah of Pakistan (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1985), 361.
43. Hector Bolitho, Jinnah: Creator of Pakistan (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981), 223.
44. Jaswant Singh, Jinnah: India—Partition—Independence (New Delhi: Rupa and Company, 2009), 470–474, summarizing Dr. Illahi Bux’s description in his book With Quaid-i-Azam During His Last Days.
45. Cited in ibid., 476.
Chapter 7: Growing Apart
1. For the text of the story, visit http://www.punjabiportal.com/articles/punjabi-short-stories-saadat -hassan-manto. On the fiftieth anniversary of the death of Saadat Hassan Manto, an eighteen-minute film titled Toba Tek Singh, directed by Afia Nathaniel, was shown at the New York Asian American International film festival 2005.
2. “The Prime Minister of India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru Addressed a House Reception, October 13, 1949,” US House of Representatives, http://history.house.gov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/36630 ?ret=True.
3. “Liaquat Ali Khan Goes to the US (1950),” Friday Times (Lahore), September 30–October 6, 2011.
4. “Resignation Letter of Jogendra Nath Mandal, 8 October 1950,” http://en.wikisource.org/wiki /Resignation_letter_of_Jogendra_Nath_Mandal.
5. Ibid.
6. Tridib Santapa Kundu, “The Partition and the Muslim Minorities of West Bengal, 1947–1967,” Partition Studies (blog), August 23, 2009, http://bengalpartitionstudies.blogspot.co.uk/2009/08/partition -and-muslim-minorities-of-west.html.
7. Though Indo-Pakistan trade resumed in 1951, both the volume and the value of bilateral commerce declined steadily, with the two neighbors expanding the new foreign commercial ties they had forged.
8. Kundu, “The Partition and the Muslim Minorities of West Bengal.”
9. Shahid Saeed, “Murder at Company Bagh,” Friday Times (Lahore), March 25–31, 2011.
10. “Report of Inquiry Commission on Assassination of Mr. Liaquat Ali Khan,” Keesing’s Record of World Events 8–9 (August 1952): 12426.
11. Valmiki Choudhary, ed., Dr Rajendra Prasad: Correspondence and Select Documents Vol. 21 (New Delhi: Allied, 1995), 91.
12. Dilip Hiro, Inside India Today (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1976 / New York: Monthly Review Press, 1977), 211–212.
13. US News & World Report, November 13, 1953, cited by Hamid Hussain, “Tale of a Love Affair That Never Was: United States-Pakistan Defense Relations,” Defence Journal (June 2002).
14. Keesing’s Contemporary Archives, Vol. 9: 1952–1954, 13461, cited by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, The Myth of Independence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), 44–45.
15. Keesing’s Contemporary Archives, Vol. 9: 1952–1954, 13462, cited by Bhutto, The Myth of Independence, 45.
16. Bhutto, The Myth of Independence, 44.
17. Dennis Kux, India and the United States: Estranged Democracies, 1941–1991 (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1992), 124–125.
18. SEATO members were Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, United Kingdom, and the United States.
19. Claire Provost, “Sixty Years of US Aid to Pakistan: Get the Data,” Guardian (London), July 11, 2011.
20. “Telegram from the United States Mission at the United Nations to the Department of State,” January 10, 1957, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955–1957, Vol. 8: South Asia, Document 40, US Department of State, Office of the Historian, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments /frus1955-57v08/d40.
21. In his book Glimpses (Lahore: Jang, 1992), Syed Amjad Ali states that H. S. Suhrawardy’s personal assistant advised the embassy staff of the prime minister’s agreement to the US facility on Pakistan soil.
22. Farooq Hameed Khan, “Badaber to Shamsi,” Nation (Lahore), July 8, 2011.
23. “Summary of US Aid to Pakistan, 1948–2010,” Guardian (London), July 11, 2011.
24. Yasmeen Yousif Pardesi, “An Analysis of the Constitutional Crisis in Pakistan (1958–1969),” Dialogue 7, no. 4 (October–December 2012).
25. Dilip Hiro, A Comprehensive Dictionary of the Middle East (Northampton, MA: Interlink, 2013), 271.
26. Yousaf Saraf, “Bogra-Nehru Accord,” Kashmiri Info, October 27, 2006, http://www.kashmiri .info/Kashmir-Fight-for-Freedom-by-Yousaf-Saraf/bogra-nehru-accord.html.
27. Ibid.; “Bogra-Nehru Negotiations,” Story of Pakistan, June 1, 2003, http://storyofpakistan.com /bogra-nehru-negotiations.
28. S. Gopal, H. Y. Sharada Prasad, and A. K. Damodaran, eds., Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru: Volume 19 (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), 322. This letter came to light forty-eight years after it was penned.
29. Sumanta Bose, Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 72.
30. Arvind Lavakare, “Forgotten Day in Kashmir’s History,” Rediff News (Mumbai), March 8,
2004, citing Hindu, February 17, 1954.
31. “Not Even Abdullah,” Spectator (London), January 17, 1958, 6.
32. Jawaharlal Nehru had first visited the USSR along with his father, Motilal, in 1927, when they attended the tenth anniversary of its founding.
33. Cited in Bose, Kashmir, 71.
34. “Telegram from the United States Mission at the United Nations to the Department of State.”
35. Article 37, “Chapter VI: Pacific Settlement of Disputes,” Charter of the United Nations, http://legal.un.org/repertory/art37/english/rep_supp2_vol2-art37_e.pdf.
36. Pakistan’s Foreign Policy, 1947–2005: A Concise History (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2007), 57.
37. A. G. Noorani, “Planning Foreign Policy,” Dawn (Karachi), October 3, 2009.
38. Paul M. McGarr, The Cold War in South Asia: The United States and the Indian Subcontinent, 1945–1965 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 77–78.
39. Rajeshwar Dayal, A Life of Our Times (Delhi: Orient Longman, 1998), 301, 303.
40. A. G. Noorani, “Lessons of Murree,” Frontline (Chennai), June 19–July 2, 2010.
41. Muhammad Ayub Khan, Friends Not Masters: A Political Biography (Berkeley: University of California Press / Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1967), 124–125.
42. Ibid., 126.
Chapter 8: Nehru’s “Forward Policy”: A Step Too Far
1. The far more detailed map signed only by Henry McMahon and Lonchen Shatra on March 25, 1914, showed the McMahon Line. On April 28, following the instructions of the Beijing government, Chen Ivan withdrew his initial from the earlier draft of the Simla Convention. Neither draft identified present-day Arunachal Pradesh, previously called North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA), as “British India” or something similar.
2. It was only in October 1951 that the Dalai Lama endorsed the pact.
3. “Major Bob Khathing: A Legend,” Assam Rifles, February 29, 2012, http://assamrifles.gov.in /news_view.aspx?id=1300; Neville Maxwell, India’s China War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1970 / Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books, 1972), 66.
4. Sir Charles U. Aichison, A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads Relating to India and Neighbouring Countries, Volume XII (New Delhi: Foreign and Political Department of the Government, 1931), 5.