Ring of Steel
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Romanians
in Austro-Hungarian Army 115 (Table 4), 248, 286 (Table 5)
calls for self-determination 542
and Compromise (1867) 17
German-ruled 392
and Germans 269, 561
in Habsburg Empire 16 (Table 1)
in Hungary 59, 562
nationalist 22
in Transylvania 22
United States and 464
as volunteers 97
Romer, Brigadier Jan Edward 245, 507
Rössel 175
Rotterdam 232
Roubaix 404
Rouen 516
Ruffey, General Pierre 125
Ruhleben camp 385–6
Ruhr district 73, 222, 481
coal industry 388
invasion by French and Belgians 563
Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria 325, 515, 522, 531, 533
rural populations 68–9, 85
Russia 2, 8, 9, 241
army 11–12, 33, 35, 38, 81, 87, 104, 105–6, 113, 198, 235; atrocities in East Prussia 170–81, 257, 489–90; atrocities in Galicia 183–4, 193–7; Field Regulations 177; occupation of Allenstein 165–70
army formations: First Army 160, 171; Second Army 160, 166, 171, 173, 179; Third Army 161; Fourth Army 161, 168; Fifth Army 150, 161; Eighth Army 161; Ninth Army 161, 305; Tenth Army 161
Austria-Hungary and 241, 244–5
and Balkans 24–28
Bethmann and 36, 275
Bolshevik coup 492, 510
defeat of 514, 515, 517, 518, 519
Duma 36
and France 8, 9, 61
and Galicia 35, 106, 160, 161, 181–206, 207, 209, 210, 257, 273
General Staff 43, 178, 250
German hatred of 226, 229–30
‘Great Programme’ 27, 36–7
Great Retreat (1915) 328
invasions in east 159, 160–206, 266, 268
and Jews 95
as leader of Slav peoples 42
Lenin seizes power 462–3, 467, 491
loss of territories under Brest-Litovsk Treaty 494
mobilization 139
peace proposals to see peace, separate
and ‘Period Preparatory to War’ 42–8, 70–71, 137
‘Plan 19’ 160
and Poland 148, 182, 411
Provisional Government 509
and Reinsurance Treaty 30
religion 90
revolutions 5, 31, 403, 413, 417, 450, 451, 454, 455, 458, 461, 470, 474, 513, 544; consequences of 478, 479, 483, 553
and Serbia 8
South-west Front 161
SPD and 456
spy network in Galicia 151
Stavka (High Command) 161, 189, 194, 196, 197, 302
and Turkish straits 275
and Ukraine 269
Workers’ and Soldiers’ Council 460
see also Soviet Union
Russian Orthodox Church 20, 90, 192–3
Russians
in eastern territories 267, 399
as prisoners of war 389–90
Russo-Japanese War 150
Russophilia 19–20, 149, 151–2, 155
Ruthenes 19, 155, 190–91, 203, 206, 559 aspirations of 471
in Austria 200, 273–4
in Austro-Hungarian army 115 (Table 4), 253, 286 (Table 5), 308
Conrad on 154, 197
evicted by Habsburg army 186
executions and military violence against 144–5, 156, 158
in Galicia 19–20, 154–5, 269, 497, 499
in Habsburg Empire 16 (Table 1)
loyalty to Habsburg regime 151
in Lwów 546
as refugees 203
religion 20, 191, 192
Russians and 182, 184, 190–92, 193, 197–8
and security troops 540
Ukrainian nationalists (Ukrainophiles) 19, 97, 148–9, 181, 191, 197
Rutowski, Tadeusz 190
Saar district 107, 464
Šabac 142, 143, 145
sabotage, on farms 391
sacrifice, as concept 564–5
St Petersburg 12, 14, 191
Sakrau 69
Salandra, Antonio 246
Salonika (Thessaloniki) 25
Salzburg 91
People’s Kitchens 355
refugees in 202
War Assistance Bureau 214
Šámal, Přemysl 250
Sambre, river 126
Samsonov, General Aleksandr 166, 171, 173
San, river 140, 149, 156
Santoppen 174
Sarajevo
anti-Serb riots in 57–8, 60
see also Franz Ferdinand, Archduke: assassination
Saxony 368, 379, 424
Prussian 443
Sazonov, Sergei 38, 42–3, 46
Scandinavia 419, 435, 436
Scarborough 238
Scheer, Admiral Reinhard 425, 551, 552
Scheer Programme 551
Scheidemann, Philipp 81, 261, 456, 459, 515, 555
Scheüch, General Heinrich 549
Schiller, Friedrich, Wallenstein’s Camp 214
Schleswig 180
Schlieffen, Alfred Graf von 104–7
Schlieffen Plan 106–8, 122
schools 365
Schulenburg, Colonel Count von der 515–6
Schweinemord 234
Schwerin, Friedrich von 272
Scotland 426, 441
Scutari (Shkodra) 26
Second World War 427, 438
Seidel, Amalie 468–9
Seidler, Ernst von 471
self-determination, national 450, 460, 490–91, 493, 494, 496, 502, 542, 542–3, 545, 546, 553, 561, 562
self-government, local 23
Serbia
army 25, 104, 118; leadership 147; Second Army 147
and Austro-Hungarian ultimatum 13–14, 21, 38–42, 61–2, 65
and Bulgarian collapse 540
campaign against 7, 8–15, 28, 36, 37, 57, 113, 137–8, 140, 141–8, 163, 207, 241, 243, 248, 268, 281, 282, 473, 559
civilians in 308
Conrad and 113
defeat of 270, 300, 347
Emperor Karl and 466
Franz Joseph and 9
Great Serb propaganda 466
Habsburg leaders and 10–15
Kaiser Wilhelm and 9, 36
military intelligence service 39–40
and Mitteleuropa project 263
mobilization 25
occupied area 393, 397, 512
plans for 462, 467
population 21
protests against 55–61
religion 90
students 21
Tisza and 10
see also Balkan Wars
Serbo-Croats 16 (Table 1)
in Austro-Hungarian Army 115 (Table 4), 286 (Table 5)
Serbs
in Austro-Hungarian army 248
Bosnian 7
coalition 20
and Czech Union 471
in Habsburg Empire 16 (Table 1)
Habsburg-controlled 392
in Hungary 101, 102
nationalist 13, 21, 25, 58
as prisoners of war 509
Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Kingdom of 560
Sering, Max 271
Seven Years War (1756–63) 163
Seventh Day Adventists 482
sex
as commodity 290–91
and infidelity 290
relations with enemy 390
and venereal disease 290–92, 426
Sheptits’kyi, Archbishop Andrei 191
Shetland Islands 230
Siberia 197, 509
Sibiu 74, 222
Sibiu 74, 222
Sič riflemen (Ruthenian) 97, 148
siege warfare 292
Siegfried Line 328
Siemens 75
Sievers, General Thadeus von 163, 178
Silesia 60, 77, 91, 225, 266, 339, 368, 446, 462, 465, 467, 495
Sixtus de Bourbon-Parma, Prince 466, 467, 512, 537
Skalon, Yevstafiy Nikolaiyevich 193
Škoda arms factory 476
Skoropadskyi, Pavlo 497
Slavism 42
Slavonia 254, 505
Slavs 17
and Monarchy 454
as prisoners of war 509
Reichsrat deputies 469, 472
United States and 464
Wilson on 537
slogans, wartime 64, 236–7, 249, 257, 450, 486, 561
Słomka, Jan 152, 182, 197
Slovaks 16 (Table 1), 101, 115 (Table 4), 453, 471
in Austro-Hungarian army 286 (Table 5)
calls for self-determination 542
in Hungary 562
Slovenes 18, 59, 91–2, 100, 101, 247, 252, 471
in Austria 200
in Austro-Hungarian army 115 (Table 4), 248, 288, 511–12
in Carniola 91–2, 101
casualties 565
Czech Union and 471
and Italy 247
politicians 252
revolutionary 544
and security troops 540
in Styria 58–9, 100, 101
in Trieste 18–19
Slovenia 57, 59, 95, 541
‘Sokol’ gymnastic clubs 59
Šmeral, Bohumír 476
smuggling 336–7, 367
Śniatyn 184
Social Darwinism 29, 111, 271
Social Democratic Party (Austria) 66, 148, 350, 468, 472
Social Democratic Party (Bohemia) 476, 544
Social Democratic Party (Germany) (SPD)
anti-war protests 79, 478
and army 111, 284
and Bethmann Hollweg 240
and Britain 228
calls for political reform 67, 384, 450–51, 455–6
and food shortages 368
and government of Max of Baden 547
Groener and 480
and invasion of East Prussia 181
and labour 380–81
as largest party in Reichstag 34, 66–7, 78
and Max of Baden 547, 555
and Patriotic Auxiliary Service Bill 383, 415
and Patriotic Instruction programme 486
and peace plans 463, 515
and Peace Resolution 460
and prospect of war 72–3, 74, 78–83, 260
Rhinelanders and 326
rise of 272
and trade unions 228, 479
and U-boat campaign 444, 447
and USPD 478–9
and volunteers 85
war aims 261
and war credits 78, 81, 84, 457–8
and War Food Office 349
see also Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD) (Germany); Vorwärts
Social Democratic Party (Hungary) 542
Socialist Party (Poland) 409
Society for the Furtherance of Inner Colonization 272
Sokol movement 252
Soldau 169
Sombart, Werner 229–30
Somme, Battle of the 280, 310–26, 328–9, 370, 376, 377, 379–80, 417, 422, 516, 517, 518
German troops’ art exhibition 443–4
as Materialschlacht 326
strength of opposing forces 313 (Table 6)
Somme, river 260, 311, 312, 516, 520
songs
humorous 287
patriotic and nostalgic 83, 95, 287, 288–9, 326, 475
Sonnino, Sidney 467
Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg 7, 54, 57, 61
Sophie, Princess (daughter of Franz Ferdinand) 55
Souchon, Vice Admiral Wilhelm 553
South Africa 232–3
South Slavs
and Common Army 117
and Compromise of 1867 451
and Czech Union 471
in Dalmatia 102
demands 471
Italy and 246
and Karl’s manifesto 541
and Mitteleuropa project 263
nationalist 453
and proposed Trialist state 241, 268–70
repression and discrimination faced by 58–9, 251, 253
and Sabor 20
Tisza and 96–7, 270
and Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 496
see also Croatians; Serbs; Slovenes, etc.
South Tyrol Army Group 506
Soviet Union 273
reorganization of east-central Europe 494
see also Russia
Spa 512
Spain 229
Spartakists 478
Sperber, Manès 68, 194
spying 172–3, 174, 177–8, 193, 196
Stalin, Joseph 205, 267
Standschützen (Tyrolean amateur riflemen) 247–8
Stanek, František 470
Stanisławów 193
‘starvation war’ 217, 232–5, 236
Steiff (teddy-bear company) 216
Stein, General Hermann von 379
Stempfle, Elisabeth 88, 238, 446
Stettin 128
Stöger-Steiner, General Rudolf 453
Straub, Colonel Johann 138
strikes
in Austria 468, 495
in Bohemia 474–5, 490
in Galicia 499
in Germany 372, 446, 468, 479–82, 494, 519, 526
in Hungary 454, 495
Stryj 156
Strzelec (Galician Polish rifle club) 97
students
German, as volunteers 85, 86 (Table 2), 92–3, 98, 99 (Table 3)
Hungarian 542
nationalist 19, 21
Polish 545
riots and demonstrations by 18, 56, 58, 60, 64–5, 501, 542
at Vienna University 374
Stürgkh, Count Karl von 10, 18, 94, 99–100, 101, 221, 251, 253, 254, 269, 270, 346, 350, 373–4, 558
Stuttgart 67, 336–7
Styr, river 305, 309
Styria 58–9, 91, 100, 101, 340, 358, 511–12
refugees in 202
submarine warfare see U-boats
Südekum, Albert 79
suffering, wartime and postwar 563–6
suffrage
Emperor Karl and 454
equal 456–7, 479
female 88, 542, 553
in Galicia 19
universal 17, 18, 345, 446, 454, 456, 459, 479, 542, 553
universal male 34, 452, 553
Švehla, Antonín 469
Sweden 559
Swedes 163
Switzerland 207, 548, 558
Syria 274
Szeptycki, Count Stanislaw 498
Szögyenyi, Count László 9, 10, 28, 37
Taaffe, Count Eduard 269
tactics, military 292, 306, 311–12
Tamines 127
Tankosić, Voija 40
Tannenberg, Battle of 169, 179, 327, 375
Tarnopol 189
Tarnów 60
Tavčar, Dr Ivan 95
taxation 400, 409
Tchokeshina 143
Temes Kubin 70
terrorism 97
Teschen 301, 307, 309, 561
Teutonic Knights 162, 203
Thaer, Colonel Albrecht von 513, 522, 533–4
Thalerhof internment camp 155
Thames, river 552
Theresienstadt internment camp 155
Thiepval 313
Thirty Years War 293
Thon, Dr Osias 187
Thorn 209, 217, 358
Thun, Franz Anton, Prince of 253
Thyssen 337
Tirpitz, Admiral Alfred von 32, 35, 238, 240, 241, 457, 484
Tisza, Count István
army bill 17
assassinated 543, 558
Berchtold and 22, 40, 265
dual strategy 270, 273
and Emperor Karl 453, 454
on Entente ‘iron ring’ 28
and Hungarian food supply 344–6, 350
and invasion of Serbia 9, 10, 11, 12, 40, 56
and Mitteleuropa project 264
and Pure Party of the Right 96–7
resignation 454–5
and Russian threat 137–8
shot at in parliament 17–18
support of Dualist system 269
on supposed Serb attack 70
Tourcoing 403
toys, patriotic 216
trade unions 228, 381, 383, 384, 415, 454, 455, 479
Transylvania 22, 74, 222, 248, 269, 466
Trentino 92, 269, 280, 466
campaign (‘Punishment Expedition’) 300–302
Trialist state (proposed) 241, 269
Trianon, Treaty of 557, 562–3
Trient (Trento) 59
Trieste 18, 91, 246
Triple Alliance 30, 42
Triple Entente 8, 28, 30, 31–3, 35, 36, 38, 45, 69, 104, 134, 208, 277
becomes Allies 437
Troppau 60
Trotha, Rear Admiral Adolf von 552
Trotsky, Leon 493–4
Troubetzkoi, Prince 42
Tschirschky, Baron Heinrich von 47
Tsingtao 230
Turkestan 197
Turkey
and Armenians 273–4, 560
see also Ottoman Empire
Turkish Straits 25, 36
‘turnip winter’ 276, 331, 339, 341, 366, 374, 380, 391, 395, 451, 465, 503
Twain, Mark 22
typhus 388, 511
Tyrol 68, 91, 203, 246, 247, 368, 467, 512, 538
German- and Italian-speakers in 247
Tyśmienica 196
U-boats 216, 235–6, 256
campaigns 199, 238–41, 415, 416–49, 457, 458, 461, 469, 477, 488, 552, 553; cessation of 551; reception of 443–4; as violations of international law 559–60
Centre Party and 447
characteristics 425–6
conditions aboard 427–9, 432–3
crews and commanders 427, 431–4
escape from 429–30
lack of success 515
losses on 428–9
morale of crews 441
novels about 444
rates of sinkings 426–7, 437–8, 437 (Fig. 6), 444, 448
Scheer Programme 551
sinking of Leinster 548
superstitions 430–31
and US 514
U-Boot-Spende 433
U-cruiser ‘Deutschland’ 425
U9 (U-boat) 216, 238
U27 (U-boat) 235–6
U34 (U-boat) 433
U35 (U-boat) 433
U48 (U-boat) 431, 434, 441
U55 (U-boat) 431
U58 (U-boat) 433
U64 (U-boat) 442
U72 (U-boat) 434
U73 (U-boat) 428
U85 (U-boat) 434
U93 (U-boat) 431–2, 435
U110 (U-boat) 441
UB40 (U-boat) 430
UB52 (U-boat) 439
UB56 (U-boat) 440
UB72 (U-boat) 429, 433
UB85 (U-boat) 441–2
UB103 (U-boat) 433, 434
UB104 (U-boat) 429, 434
UB123 (U-boat) 548
UB124 (U-boat) 431
UC63 (U-boat) 432
UC65 (U-boat) 429
UC77 (U-boat) 433
Udýnski, Baron Karl Heinold von 200
Uhlans 165
Uhříně ves 474
Ujedinjenje ili Smrt (Union or Death) 8