The Hacking of the American Mind

by Robert H. Lustig

7.Lepp A et al., “The Relationship Between Cell Phone Use and Academic Performance in a Sample of U.S. College Students.” SAGE Open 5, Jan.–March 2015, 1–9, doi: 10.1177/2158244015573169.

  8.Falbe J et al., “Sleep Duration, Restfulness, and Screens in the Sleep Environment.” Pediatrics 135, E367–E375 (2015).

  9.Sang-Hun C, “South Korea Expands Aid for Internet Addiction,” New York Times, May 28, 2010. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/29/world/asia/29game.html?_r=0

  10.Lin F et al., “Abnormal White Matter Integrity in Adolescents with Internet Addiction Disorder: A Tract-Based Spatial Statistics Study.” PLoS One 7, e30253 (2012).

  11.Zhu Y et al., “Molecular and Functional Imaging of Internet Addiction.” Biomed. Res. Int. 10.1155/2015/378675, 2015:378675 (2015).

  12.Guillot CR et al., “Longitudinal Associations Between Anhedonia and Internet-Related Addictive Behaviors in Emerging Adults.” Comput. Human Behav. 62, 475–9 (2016).

  13.Schou Andreassen C et al., “The Relationship Between Addictive Use of Social Media and Video Games and Symptoms of Psychiatric Disorders: A Large-Scale Cross-Sectional Study.” Psychol. Addict. Behav. 30, 252–62 (2016).

  14.Kuss DJ et al., “Internet Addiction: A Systematic Review of Epidemiological Research for the Last Decade.” Curr. Pharm. Des. 20, 4026–52 (2014).

  15.Selfhout MH et al., “Different Types of Internet Use, Depression, and Social Anxiety: The Role of Perceived Friendship Quality.” J. Adolesc. 32, 819–33 (2009).

  16.Tandoc E et al., “Facebook Use, Envy, and Depression Among College Students: Is Facebooking Depressing?” Comp. Human Behav. 43, 139–46 (2015).

  17.Primack BA et al., “Association Between Media Use in Adolescence and Depression in Young Adulthood: ALongitudinal Study.” Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 66, 181–8 (2009).

  18.Zhu Y et al., “Molecular and Functional Imaging of Internet Addiction.” Biomed. Res. Int. 10.1155/2015/378675, 2015:378675 (2015).

  19.Sherman LE et al., “The Power of the Like in Adolescence: Effects of Peer Influence on Neural and Behavioral Responses to Social Media.” Psychol. Sci. 27, 1027–35 (2016).

  20.Coates J, The Hour Between Dog and Wolf: How Risk Taking Transforms Us, Body and Mind. Penguin, New York (2012).

  21.Paramaguru K, “Coked-Up British Bankers Caused the Financial Crisis, Says UK Professor.” Time, April 17, 2013. http://newsfeed.time.com/2013/04/17/coked-up-british-bankers-caused-the-financial-crisis-says-uk-professor/

  22.Friedman M, Capitalism and Freedom. University of Chicago Press, Chicago (1962).

  23.Andreyeva T et al., “The Impact of Food Prices on Consumption: A Systematic Review of Research on the Price Elasticity of Demand for Food.” Am. J. Public Health 100, 216–22 (2010).

  24.Soto PL et al., “Dopamine D2-Like Receptors and Behavioral Economics of Food Reinforcement.” Neuropsychopharmacology 41, 971–8 (2016).

  25.Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, “2015–2025 Projections of National Health Care Expenditures Data Released,” July 13, 2016. http://www.cms.gov/newsroom/mediareleasedatabase/press-releases/2016-press-releases-items/2016-07-13.html

  26.Waterfield B, “Sugar Is ‘Addictive and the Most Dangerous Drug of the Times,’” Telegraph, Sept. 17, 2013. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/netherlands/10314705/sugar-is-addictive-and-the-most-dangerous-drug-of-the-times.html

  CHAPTER 15. THE DEATH SPIRAL

  1.“First Future Health Index Research Indicates Americans Feel U.S. Healthcare Paradigm Needs Radical Shift over Next Decade.” Philips Media, June 8, 2016. http://www.usa.philips.com/a-w/about/news/archive/standard/news/press/2016/20160608-first_future_health_index_research_indicates_americans_feel_us_healthcare_paradigm_needs_radical_shift_over_next_decade.html

  2.Samocha-Bonet D et al., “Metabolically Healthy and Unhealthy Obese—The 2013 Stock Conference Report.” Obes. Rev. 15, 697–708 (2014).

  3.Voulgari C et al., “Increased Heart Failure Risk in Normal-Weight People with Metabolic Syndrome Compared with Metabolically Healthy Obese Individuals.” J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 58, 1343–50 (2011).

  4.Abbasi F et al., “Relationship Between Obesity, Insulin Resistance, and Coronary Heart Disease Risk.” J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 40, 937–43 (2002).

  5.Ford ES et al., “Prevalence of the Metabolic Syndrome Among US Adults: Findings from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.” JAMA 287, 356–9 (2002).

  6.Xu J et al., Mortality in the United States, 2015. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Washington, D.C. (2016). https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db267.htm

  7.Roth GA et al., “Demographic and Epidemiologic Drivers of Global Cardiovascular Mortality.” N. Engl. J. Med. 372, 1333–41 (2015).

  8.Chetty R et al., “The Association Between Income and Life Expectancy in the United States, 2001–2014.” JAMA 315, 1750–-66 (2016).

  9.Case A et al., “Rising Morbidity and Mortality in Midlife Among White Non-Hispanic Americans in the 21st Century.” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 112, 15078–83 (2015).

  10.“Global Burden of Metabolic Risk Factors for Chronic Diseases Collaboration, Cardiovascular Disease, Chronic Kidney Disease, and Diabetes Mortality Burden of Cardiometabolic Risk Factors from 1980 to 2010: A Comparative Risk Assessment.” Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2, 634–47 (2014).

  11.Terry LL, Smoking and Health: Report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service. U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C. (1964). http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/access/nnbbmq.pdf

  12.“Social Policy Lab: A Systemic Approach” (in Spanish). CISS, July 3, 2015. http://www.ciss.net/news_activity/social-policy-lab-a-systemic-approach/?lang=en

  13.Ford ES et al., “Explaining the Decrease in U.S. Deaths from Coronary Disease, 1980–2000.” N. Engl. J. Med. 356, 2388–98 (2007).

  14.Danner D et al., “Positive Early Emotions in Life and Longevity: Findings from the Nun Study.” J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 80, 804–13 (2001).

  15.Diener E et al., “Happy People Liver Longer: Subjective Well-Being Contributes to Health and Longevity.” App. Psychol. Health Well-Being 3, 1–43 (2011).

  16.Zaninotto P et al., “Sustained Enjoyment of Life and Mortality at Older Ages: Analysis of the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing.” BMJ 355, doi: 10.1136/bmj.i6267 (2016).

  17.Liu B et al., “Does Happiness Itself Directly Affect Mortality? The Prospective UK Million Women Study.” Lancet 387, 874–81 (2016).

  18.Tawakol A et al., “Relation Between Resting Amygdalar Activity and Cardiovascular Events: A Longitudinal and Cohort Study.” Lancet, doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31714-7 (2017).

  19.Emanuel E, “Why I Hope to Die at 75.” Atlantic Monthly, Oct. 2014. http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/10/why-i-hope-to-die-at-75/379329/

  20.Olshansky SJ et al., “A Potential Decline in Life Expectancy in the United States in the 21st Century.” N. Engl. J. Med. 352, 1138–45 (2005).

  21.Himmelstein DU et al., “The Current and Projected Taxpayer Shares of US Health Costs.” Am. J. Public Health 106, 449–52 (2016).

  22.Roy A, “Obamacare’s MLR ‘Bomb’ Will Create Private Insurance Monopolies and Drive Premiums Skyward. Hallelujah!” Forbes, Dec. 6, 2011. http://www.forbes.com/sites/theapothecary/2011/12/06/obamacares-mlr-bomb-will-create-private-insurance-monopolies-and-drive-premiums-skyward-hallelujah/—6044ee4c5acc

  23.Mcgee S, “Obamacare Premiums and Deductibles Going Up—But It’s Still Better Than Before,” Guardian, Nov. 20, 2015. http://www.theguardian.com/money/us-money-blog/2015/nov/20/obamacare-premiums-deductibles-increase-health-care

  24.Finkelstein EA et al., “The Costs of Obesity in the Workplace.” J. Occup. Environ. Med. 52, 971–6 (2010).

  25.Lustig RH, “Sickeningly Sweet: Does
Sugar Cause Diabetes? Yes.” Can. J. Diabetes 40, 282–7 (2016).

  26.Singh GM et al., “Estimated Global, Regional, and National Disease Burdens Related to Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Consumption in 2010.” Circulation 132, 639–66 (2015).

  27.Food and Nutrition Service, Foods Typically Purchased by Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) Households (Summary). U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. (2016). http://www.fns.usda.gov/sites/default/files/ops/snapfoodstypicallypurchased-summary.pdf

  28.Conrad Z et al., “Cardiometabolic Mortality by Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Participation and Eligibility in the United States.” Am. J. Public Health 107, doi: 10.2105/ajph.2016.303608 (March 2017).

  29.Vreman RA et al., “Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease as a Mediator of Detriments of Dietary Sugar Consumption: Implications for the Health and Economic Benefits of Interventions in the United States.” BMJ Open (in press).

  CHAPTER 16. CONNECT (RELIGION, SOCIAL SUPPORT, CONVERSATION)

  1.Young SN, “How to Increase Serotonin in the Brain Without Drugs.” Rev. Psychiatr. Neurosci. 32, 394–9 (2007).

  2.Borg J et al., “Contribution of Non-Genetic Factors to Dopamine and Serotonin Receptor Availability in the Adult Human Brain.” Mol. Psychiatry 21, 1077–84 (2016).

  3.Reiss S, “The Sixteen Strivings for God.” Zygon 39, 303–320, doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9744.2004.00575.x (June 2004).

  4.Diener E et al., “The Religion Paradox: If Religion Makes People Happy, Why Are So Many Dropping Out?” J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 101, 1278–90 (2011).

  5.Bullard G, “The World’s Newest Major Religion: No Religion.” National Geographic, April 2016. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/04/160422-atheism-agnostic-secular-nones-rising-religion/

  6.Greene RA, “Americans Not Losing Their Religion, but Changing It Often.” CNN, April 27, 2009. http://cnn.com/2009/us/04/27/changing.religion.study/index.html

  7.Bingham J, “Religion Can Make You Happier, Official Figures Suggest,” Telegraph, Feb. 2, 2016. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/religion/12136531/religion-can-make-you-happier-official-figures-suggest.html

  8.Lim C et al., “Religion, Social Networks, and Life Satisfaction.” Am. Sociol. Rev. 75, 914–33 (2010).

  9.Newport F et al., “In U.S., Very Religious Have Higher Wellbeing Across All Faiths.” Gallup, Feb. 16, 2012. http://www.gallup.com/poll/152732/religious-higher-wellbeing-across-faiths.aspx

  10.Hunter EV, “What Positive Psychologists and Mormons Can Learn from Each Other.” University of Pennsylvania (2013). http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1076&context=mapp_capstone

  11.Diener E et al., “The Religion Paradox: If Religion Makes People Happy, Why Are So Many Dropping Out?” J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 101, 1278–90 (2011).

  12.Harris H et al., “The Neural Correlates of Religious and Nonreligious Belief.” PLoS One 4, e0007272 (2009).

  13.Borg J et al., “The Serotonin System and Spiritual Experiences.” Am. J. Psychiatry 160, 1965–9 (2003).

  14.Nilsson KW et al., “Genes Encoding for AP-2beta and the Serotonin Transporter Are Associated with the Personality Character Spiritual Acceptance.” Neurosci. Lett. 411, 233–7 (2007).

  15.Brewerton TD, “Hyperreligiosity in Psychotic Disorders.” J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 182, 302–4 (1994).

  16.Macnamara P, “The God Effect.” https://aeon.co/essays/the-dopamine-switch-between-atheist-believer-and-fanatic

  17.Baumeister RF et al., “The Need to Belong: Desire for Interpersonal Attachments as a Fundamental Human Motivation.” Psychol. Bull. 117, 497–529 (1995).

  18.Southwick SM et al., “The Psychobiology of Depression and Resilience to Stress: Implications for Prevention and Treatment.” Ann. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 1, 255–91 (2005).

  19.Eisenberger NI et al., “Social Neuroscience and Health: Neurophysiological Mechanisms Linking Social Ties with Physical Health.” Nat. Neurosci. 15, 669–74 (2012).

  20.Ybarra O et al., “Mental Exercising Through Simple Socializing: Social Interaction Promotes General Cognitive Functioning.” Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 34, 248–53 (2008).

  21.Perreau-Linck E et al., “In Vivo Measurements of Brain Trapping of A-[11C]Methyl-L-Tryptophan During Acute Changes in Mood States.” J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 32, 430–34 (2007).

  22.Brummett BH et al., “Perceived Social Support as a Predictor of Mortality in Coronary Patients: Effects of Smoking, Sedentary Behavior, and Depressive Symptoms.” Psychosom. Med. 67, 40–5 (2005).

  23.Cacioppo JT et al., “In the Eye of the Beholder: Individual Differences in Perceived Social Isolation Predict Regional Brain Activation to Social Stimuli.” J. Cogn. Neurosci. 21, 83–92 (2009).

  24.Light SN et al., “Empathy Is Associated with Dynamic Change in Prefrontal Brain Electrical Activity During Positive Emotion in Children.” Child Dev. 80, 1210–31 (2009).

  25.Goleman D et al., “Social Intelligence and the Biology of Leadership.” Harvard Bus. Rev. 86, 74–81 (2008).

  26.Fairhurst MT et al., “Being and Feeling in Sync with an Adaptive Virtual Partner: Brain Mechanisms Underlying Dynamic Cooperativity.” Cerebral Cortex 23, 2592–600 (2013).

  27.Koehne S et al., “Perceived Interpersonal Synchrony Increases Empathy: Insights from Autism Spectrum Disorder.” Cognition 146, 8–15 (2016).

  28.Diamond LM et al., “Emotion Regulation Across the Life Span: an Integrative Perspective Emphasizing Self-Regulation, Positive Affect, and Dyadic Processes.” Motiv. Emot. 27, 125–56 (2003).

  29.Christakis NA et al., “The Spread of Obesity in a Large Social Network over 32 Years.” N. Engl. J. Med. 357, 370–9 (2007).

  30.Fowler JH et al., “Dynamic Spread of Happiness in a Large Social Network: Longitudinal Analysis over 20 Years in the Framingham Heart Study.” BMJ 337, A2338 (2008).

  31.Kross E et al., “Social Rejection Shares Somatosensory Representations with Physical Pain.” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 108, 6270–75 (2011).

  32.Valenzuela S et al., “Is There Social Capital in a Social Network Site? Facebook Use and College Students’ Life Satisfaction, Trust, and Participation.” J. Comput. Mediat. Commun. 14, 875–901 (2009).

  33.Zhang C et al., “Longitudinal Psychosocial Factors Related to Symptoms of Internet Addiction Among Adults in Early Midlife.” Addict. Behav. 62, 65–72 (2016).

  34.Kramer ADI et al., “Experimental Evidence of Massive-Scale Emotional Contagion Through Social Networks.” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 111, 8788–90 (2014).

  35.Coviello L et al., “Detecting Emotional Contagion in Massive Social Networks.” PLoS One 9, e90315 (2014).

  36.Park J et al., “When Perceptions Defy Reality: the Relationships Between Depression and Actual and Perceived Facebook Social Support.” J. Affect. Disord. 200, 37–44 (2016).

  37.Caplan SE, “Preference for Online Social Interaction: A Theory of Problematic Internet Use and Psychosocial Well-Being.” Commun. Res. 30, 625–48 (2003).

  38.Park J et al., “When Perceptions Defy Reality: the Relationships Between Depression and Actual and Perceived Facebook Social Support.” J. Affect. Disord. 200, 37–44 (2016).

  39.Kross E et al., “Facebook Use Predicts Declines in Subjective Well-Being in Young Adults.” PLoS One 8, e69841 (2013).

  40.Verduyn P et al., “Passive Facebook Usage Undermines Affective Well-Being: Experimental and Longitudinal Evidence.” J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 144, 480–88 (2015).

  41.Chou HT et al., “‘They Are Happier and Having Better Lives Than I Am’: The Impact of Using Facebook on Perceptions of Others’ Lives.” Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 15, 117–21 (2012).

  42.Caplan SE, “Theory and Measurement of Generalized Problematic Internet Use: A Two-Step Approach.” Comp. Hum. Behav. 26, 1089–97 (2010).

  43.Ryan T et al., �
��The Uses and Abuses of Facebook: A Review of Facebook Addiction.” J. Behav. Addict. 3.3, 133–48 (2014).

  44.Yanes A, “The Unsocial Experiment: a Month Without Social Media.” Huffington Post, May 25, 2016. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/arianna-yanes/a-month-without-social-media_b_10119504.html

  45.“Louis C.K. Hates Cell Phones.” Late Night with Conan O’Brien. TNT, Sept. 20, 2013. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5HbYScltf1c

  CHAPTER 17. CONTRIBUTE (SELF-WORTH, ALTRUISM, VOLUNTEERISM, PHILANTHROPY)

  1.Brickman P et al., “Lottery Winners and Accident Victims: Is Happiness Relative?” J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 36, 917–27 (1978).

  2.Nissle S et al., “Winning the Jackpot and Depression: Money Cannot Buy Happiness.” Int. J. Psych. Clin. Pract. 6, 183–6 (2002).

  3.Arvey RD et al., “Work Centrality and Post-Award Work Behavior of Lottery Winners.” J. Psychol. 138, 404–20 (2004).

  4.Economic Research Service, “U.S. Spending on Food Away from Home Higher Than on Food at Home in 2014.” U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. (2016). https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/chart-gallery/gallery/chart-detail/?chartId=78742

  5.Barclay E, “Your Grandparents Spent More of Their Money on Food Than You Do.” Salt, NPR, March 2, 2015. http://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2015/03/02/389578089/your-grandparents-spent-more-of-their-money-on-food-than-you-do

  6.Ball K, “Traversing Myths and Mountains: Addressing Socioeconomic Inequities in the Promotion of Nutrition and Physical Activity Behaviours.” Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 12, 142 (2015).

  7.Kasser T, The High Price of Materialism. MIT Press, Cambridge (2002).

  8.Kasser T et al., “The Relations of Maternal and Social Environments to Late Adolescents’ Materialistic and Prosocial Aspirations.” Dev. Psychol. 31, 907–14 (1995).

  9.Kasser T et al., “A Dark Side of the American Dream: Correlates of Financial Success as a Life Aspiration.” J. Person. Soc. Psychol. 65, 410–22 (1993).

  10.Schmuck P et al., “Intrinsic and Extrinsic Goals: Their Structure and Relationship to Wellbeing in German and U.S. College Students.” Soc. Indic. Res. 50, 225–41 (2000).