Child to Soldier: Stories from Joseph Kony's Lord's Resistance Army
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identity, 116–17, 120, 123, 158
independence and personal agency, 103, 107
interaction with LRM/A rebels, 103–4
military training in Sudan, 117
motherhood, 7–8, 119–21, 123
night alone in the forest, 103
praise from Joseph Kony, 118
rejection by community, 159–60
relations with fellow abductees, 109–10
self-awareness, 116
superstitious beliefs, 99–101
thoughts of escape, 108–9, 113
thoughts of home, 155
work in LRM/A sickbay, 112–13
Amin, Idi: collapse of reign, 5–6, 57
declaration of economic independence (1972), 55
Obote coup, 4
violence towards the Acholi, 4–5, 178n4
Amnesty International (AI), 47, 67
Anaka camp, 163–4, 183n5
ancestral (paco) and residential home (ot), 80–1. See also dwoogo paco (returning home)
anointing, 86–9
anthills (bye-agoro, bye-aribu), 14
Aparo, Miya (pseud.): abduction, 9, 11–12
combat identity, 77
education and childhood, 10, 75
father’s death, 32–3
first encounter with LRM/A brutality, 15
given away to an officer, 91, 157
intense suffering, 157
LRM/A homestead experiences, 93
pregnancy and motherhood, 77, 94
recollection of the harvest, 90–1
reflection on father’s teachings, 153
rejection by family and community, 159–60
return to civilian society, 154
survival strategies, 22–4
witnessing killings, 84–5
Appadurai, Arjun, 34–5, 40–1
Arab traders, 35, 178n2
Ataro, Amal (pseud.): abduction, 9, 78
motherhood, 9
relations with Joseph Kony, 91–2
Atiak, 60, 168
Atkinson, R., 44
Augustine of Hippo (Brown), 32
Auma, Alice Abongowat. See Lakwena, Alice
autobiography: Derrida and Nietzsche on, 32
as narrative, 34
objectivity of, 31
voice in, 31–3
autochthony, 35, 40
Babito clans, 35
Baganda, 4, 36, 38–40, 178n5
bahati mbaya (bad luck), 10
Baker, Sir Samuel, 36, 178n2
‘Bantu,’ 38, 178n3
Barlonyo Massacre, 60, 168
Barry, D., 72
Bashir, Omar al-, 9, 142
Beary, Brian, 67
Behrend, H., 44–5, 53, 181n10
Being There (Bradburd), 26
Bejerot, Nils, 71, 180n7
Bennett, O., 49
Betz, A.L., 30
Bexley, J., 49
Bigombe, Betty Atuku, 114–15, 181n13
Blood Diamond (2006), 20, 183n1
Boothby, N., 172
Bradburd, Daniel, 26
brainwashing, 82. See also lwoko wii cibilan (washing the civilian mind)
Brett, R., 24
British colonialism, 35–8, 46
Brown, P.R., 32
Buganda, 35–7, 44
constitutional crisis (1966), 38
Kabaka (king) of, 4, 38, 179n3
Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom, 35
Bur Coro killings, 48
bush, significance of, 20, 80, 131
camoflast (camouflage), 86
camps: buildings and household hierarchy, 90–3
for displaced persons, 60, 62, 165, 172, 183n4, 184n6
notion of collective punishment in, 162–3
spontaneous fires at (Anaka), 163–4, 183n5
can matek (intense suffering), 28–9, 81. See also suffering
Cape Town Principles and Best Practices, 19–20, 178n7
cen (evil spirit of the dead), 12, 20, 159–60
haunting of, 84
purification of, 83–4, 181n10
Central African Republic (CAR), 59, 67
child abductees: cultural conditioning of, 66
entering a homestead phase (donyo ii gang), 89–93
forced participation in killings (neko dano), 84–6
gender restrictions, 88–9
going into the bush (wot ii lum), 80–2, 131
going to work (cito ii tic), 94–5
hope of returning home, 155–6
hostility among, 109–10
household hierarchy and, 91–3
identities, 77, 80–1, 95, 137, 157–8
kinship and belonging, 91
labels used for enemies and soldiers, 95
liminal transformation process of, 66, 75–8
military training (pwonyo mony), 93–4
parallels with Stockholm Syndrome, 70, 72–4
purification ceremony (wiiro kom), 69, 86–9, 139–40
rebranding of the mind, 75
relationship with abductor, 70, 72, 94–5
torture and beatings, 82–3, 110–12, 135–8
walking long stretches, 81–2, 134–5. See also abductions
child-inducted (CI) soldiers: accepted images of, 21
autobiographical voice of, 31–4
collective sympathy for, 154
differential treatment of, 8
dilemma of returning home, 24–5
factors for desertion, 73–4
hair care, 81
identities, 24, 66, 74, 157–8, 176
moralistic views of, 365
need for studies on, 175
recollection of events and dates, 31
referred to as olum (bush), 20–1
sense of intense suffering (can matek) and easy life (kwo mayet), 28–9
storytelling audience of, 31
term usage, 3, 20–1
victimization of, 153, 175
voluntary, 21
Western societal views on, 153–4. See also child abductees
returning CI soldiers
children: as human persons, 19
protection of, 19, 61–2, 65
resilience in, 156, 164
rights of, 153, 183n2
‘child soldier’ term, 19–20
China, communist, 82
Christian fundamentalism, 67–8
Churchill, Winston, 31
cito ii tic (going to work), 94–5
Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, 177n6, 183n2
collective identity, 46, 161, 164
collective memory, 30, 133, 165
colonialism. See British colonialism
Conservative Party (CP), 38–9
Cook, K., 131
Corner Kilak Massacre, 168
Crawford, L., 172
Crow Nation (U.S.), 53–4
culo kwor (restorative restitution for loss of life), 166–7
cultural trauma, 161, 164
culture: definitions of, 13, 74–5
as the genesis of agency, 75
and identity, 24, 75
repurposing of, 24, 74–5, 155
Xhosa and Zulu, 17. See also Acholi culture
Daily Monitor (Uganda), 181–2n3
dano adana (human person), 15, 174
child combatants’ sense of, 107, 137, 138, 176
children as, 19
former CI soldiers’ struggles with, 16, 21, 123, 157–8, 160
phrase usage, 16–18
reclaiming status as, 167
uncertainty of, 151
Democratic Party (DP), 38–9
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), 59, 65, 67, 74
Derrida, Jacques, 32
de Temmerman, Els, 41, 131, 182n2
diiyo cwiny (suppressing the heart and soul), 156–7
dini-dini (hide and seek game), 10, 98, 181n1
Dinka, 62, 182n3
confrontations with LRM/A, 63, 142, 144
displaced-persons camps.
See camps
Dolan, C., 51, 181n11
donyo ii gang (entering a homestead), 89–93
double consciousness, 116–17
dreadlocks (wic anginya), 81, 181n9
Druckman, D., 34
DuBois, W.E.B., 116–17
Dugard, Jaycee, Lee, 70, 180n5
Durkheim, Emile, 165
dwoogo paco (returning home), 154–5, 157. See also returning CI soldiers
dyeere (sacrifice), 44
Ecce homo (Nietzsche), 32
Egeland, Jan, 175
elders: of clans (ludito kaka), 167, 174
collective memory of, 165
conflict resolution, 166
customs for formal discussions, 148, 167
deaths of, 18
discussions on formalities of war (lapir), 44
gatherings of kacooke, 125
relations with Joseph Kony, 57, 63, 114
respect for, 100, 102, 106, 125
restoration of, 174
storytelling, 11
struggle for survival, 62
teachings of, 127–8, 143–4
Enmark, Kristin, 70–2, 180n7
ethnic conflict/violence: to establish hegemony, 45
inter-ethnic wars, 35–7
killings, 4–6
southern vs. northern Uganda, 38, 40–1
ethnographers, 26–7, 34
family reunification, 172
Fassera, Sister Rachele, 62, 131, 133–4
father-child imagery, 66
Finnstrom, Sverker, 28, 183n3
Franklin, Benjamin, 31
Frie, R., 103
Fuselier, D., 73
Geertz, Clifford, 74
gender differences: in household structure, 89–90
in purification rituals, 88
in transformation of children into soldiers, 78
Gersony, Robert, 46, 50
girl soldiers: given away to officers, 91–2
life in LRM/A homesteads, 90–1
menstrual cycles, 88, 91, 191n13
pregnancy and motherhood, 94
purification rituals for, 88
ranks for, 118
supervision by male officers, 8. See also Amayo, Jola
Aparo, Miya
Ataro, Amal
Mamit, Payaa
global terrorism, 67–8
Government of South Sudan (GOSS), 182–3n3
Graham, D.L.R., 71
grounded theory, 26
guilt: collective, 85
of former CI soldiers, 171
Gulu Support the Children Organisation (GUSCO), 3, 96, 129, 150–1, 172
outreach to interview participants, 7, 124
Gulu town: businesses, 55–6
hospital, 56
liberation from Amin forces, 5
transportation to, 56
war monument for child soldiers, 175
gungu (kneeling), 49
gwooko dog paco (defending the homestead): Acholi concept of, 43–6
Holy Spirit Movement (HSM) as, 51–3
Halbwachs, M., 165
Halperin, J., 172
Hearst, Patricia, 70, 180n2
HIV/AIDS, 49
Holy Spirit Movement (HSM): defeat by NRM/A, 53, 57–8, 61
rise of, 52–3
strategy of singing, 53, 179n5
homestead: Acholi concept of, 43–6
granaries, 90–1
LRM/A residences (camps), 89–93
Luo defence of, 44
myth of defence of, 24
Honwana, A., 53, 154
Hornbeck, Shawn, 70, 180n4
hostage-captor relationship, 69–73
Hough, P., 68
household hierarchy, 91–3
humanness, 17, 21. See also dano adana (human person)
Human Rights Watch, 47
hunger, 23, 56, 132, 145
Husserl, E., 27–8
identity/identities: Acholi ethnocultural, 37–8, 43, 46
of child abductees, 77, 80–1, 95, 137, 157–8
as child combatant, 86, 115–17, 119–21, 176
collective, 46, 161, 164
creation or construction of, 127, 152, 154
culture and, 24, 75
as dano adana, 17, 21
double or dual, 66, 137, 157–8
as ‘halfie,’ 26
of returning CI soldiers, 24, 123, 154–5, 160, 171–2
stigmatized, 74, 77, 81, 122, 144, 155, 170–1
torture linked to, 83
of victims, 168
inter-ethnic wars, 35–7
International Criminal Court (ICC), 60, 168, 173
international law, 45
interview methodology, 7–10, 32–4
Isis-Women’s International Cross Cultural Exchange (Isis-WICCE), 48
jok (gods or spirits), 13, 162
Jones, Jim, 72
Jonte-Pace, D.E., 34
Kabalega, Omukama, 35–6
Kacokke Madit, 68
kadogos (little ones), 40, 61
Kampala, 40, 56, 172
Karimojong cattle rustlers, 50–1
Keitesi, C., 47
Khaddar, Omar, 19
Khartoum government, 142, 182n3
killing, forced participation in, 84–6
Kitgum Concerned Women’s Association (KICWA), 172
Kitgum district, 47
kongo arege (gin), 56
Kony, Joseph, 6, 181n13
apocalyptic spiritualism, 72
assistance by senior officers, 78
child abductions, 61, 134
control, 64
family and childhood, 55, 57
first public appearance, 63
founding of LRM/A, 54–5, 57–60
indictment for war crimes, 60, 63, 173
justification for his war, 63–4
at peace talks (1993–4), 58, 114–15, 180n1, 181n13
rank appointments, 118
rape by, 9, 92
relations with Acholi elders, 57, 63, 114
as a spirit medium, 58, 100
wives, 9, 91–2. See also Lord’s Resistance Movement/Army (LRM/A)
Koresh, David, 72
Kuturia, 35, 178n2
kwiri (self-efficacy), 100, 156
labok lok (storyteller), 3
Lacek-Ocot, 115–16
Lagira, Ocaya, 133–4
Lakwena (spirit), 52, 58
Lakwena, Alice, 41, 52–3, 58, 67
Lamogi Rebellion (1911–12), 36–7
lanyut (pointer or signpost), 17
lapir (rules for engagement in war), 44–5, 58
Larsen, S.F., 30
lawiny lok (story-listener), 3
Lear, Jonathan, 53–4
Leggett, I., 50
leng cwiny (clean heartedness), 86
Liberian war (1989–97), 46, 70
‘life-world,’ 27
liminality, concept of, 24, 75–6
liminal repurposing of culture, 66, 90, 92, 155
concept, 24, 74
liminal transformation phases: abduction (mak), 78–80
anointing with shea butter (wiiro kom), 69, 86–9, 139–40
concept and process, 75–6
entering a homestead (donyo ii gang), 89–93
going into the bush (wot ii lum), 80–2, 131
going to work (cito ii tic), 94–5
killing a person (neko dano), 84–6
military training (pwonyo mony), 93–4
washing the civilian mind (lwoko wii cibilan), 75, 82–4, 137
lim ma kwo (living wealth), 50
Lionnet, F., 32
listener, role of, 3, 6
literacy, 38, 131, 172
Liu Institute for Global Studies, 169–70
livestock, 49–51, 179n6
lok mucwiny (mature spoken words), 125
looting, 49–51, 94
Lord’s Resistance Movement/Army (LRM/A): accountability for war crimes, 60, 168, 173
alliance with
Sudan, 62, 141–2
anointing with shea butter ritual (wiiro kom), 69, 86–9, 139–40
beating/torture of abductees, 82–4, 110–12, 135–9, 143
clash with SPLM/A, 181–2n3
control, 66–9, 82, 89, 95
controller yard, 181n11
exploitation of Acholi culture, 10, 13, 24–5, 66, 84, 152
forced killings, 84–6
founding and evolution of, 58–60
gender restrictions, 88–9
Lacek-Ocot incident, 115
male-oriented structure, 8
mass murders, 60, 64
military structure, 77–8
military training (pwonyo mony), 93–4, 117
peace talks, 58, 114–15, 173–4, 180n1, 181n13
as a rebel movement, 41, 59, 67
religious indoctrination/fundamentalism of, 67–9
residential homesteads, 90–3
rivalry with Dinka, 62–3, 142, 144
rules and prohibitions (cik), 89, 100–1
solidarity with abductees, 94–5
strategies, 54–5
war with UPDF, 6, 11, 117–18, 120, 134, 144–6, 181n3. See also abductions
Kony, Joseph
Lucima, O., 168
lujogi and latal (practising witchcraft), 79
Lukwiya, Raska, 23, 173
Lule, Yusufu, 39
luloka (from across the river), 38, 40, 46
lum (bush, grass), 20, 80
lumerok (enemies), 95
luneko (killers), 85
Luo: chiefdoms, 44
defenders, 44–5
inter-ethnic conflict, 4, 35, 178n5
kinship ties, 149
language, 10, 27, 32–3
rules for engagement in war (lapir), 44–5
of Tekidi, 35, 178n1
Luwero killings, 40, 48
lwoko wii cibilan (washing the civilian mind), 75, 82–4, 137
mafuta mingi (those who have a lot of fat), 55–6
mak (abduction). See abductions
Mamit, Payaa (pseud.): abduction, 9, 78–9
anointing, 87–8
escape attempt, 155
identity, 80, 170–1
on learning from suffering, 176
life in LRM/A homestead, 91
on the nature of forgiveness, 171
rejection by family, 20, 159, 170–1
time in the bush, 80–1
Martin-Baro, I., 74, 164
mato oput (drinking bitter roots), 166–9
mayot (lightness, easiness, or goodness), 28
McDougal, M.S., 45
McQuillan, M., 34
media: attention in northern Uganda, 4, 175
portrayal of child soldier, 20
view of LRM/A, 62, 67–8
memory: collective, 30, 133, 165
cultural trauma and, 161
limitations of, 27, 30–1
selective use of, 133
Merleau-Ponty, M., 27–8
metaphors, pumpkin, 161–2, 164–5, 172–4, 183n3
min ot (mother of the house), 92–3
mobilization, 38–9
moi (title of praise), 122
mony pa gabumente (government soldiers), 95