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continual need for reassurance: Mitchell J. Prinstein et al. “Adolescent Girls’ Interpersonal Vulnerability to Depressive Symptoms: A Longitudinal Examination of Reassurance-Seeking and Peer Relationships.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 114, no. 4 (2005): 676.
Many describe them as Machiavellian: Patricia H. Hawley. “Prosocial and Coercive Configurations of Resource Control in Early Adolescence: A Case for the Well-Adapted Machiavellian.” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 49, no. 3 (2003): 279–309.
most likely to become teen moms: Marion K. Underwood, Janis B. Kupersmidt, and John D. Coie. “Childhood Peer Sociometric Status and Aggression as Predictors of Adolescent Childbearing.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 6, no. 2 (1996).
especially likely to have high status: Jennifer T. Parkhurst and Andrea Hopmeyer. “Sociometric Popularity and Peer-Perceived Popularity, Two Distinct Dimensions of Peer Status.” Journal of Early Adolescence 18, no. 2 (1998): 125–44.
high in status are also highly: Ibid.
to stop washing their hands: Markel. “In 1850, Ignaz Semmelweis Saved Lives with Three Words: ‘Wash Your Hands.’”
purportedly from an infection: K. Codell Carter and Barbara R. Carter. Childbed Fever: A Scientific Biography of Ignaz Semmelweis. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2005.
CHAPTER 3. The Problems with Popularity: What’s Wrong with What We Want?
sits the Trevi Fountain: “Your Resourceful Site on the Trevi Fountain in Roma,” http://www.trevifountain.net/description.htm; “Trevi Coins to Fund Food for Poor.” BBC News, November 26, 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6188052.stm.
report their “fundamental motives”: Kenneth R. Olson and Dale A. Weber. “Relations Between Big Five Traits and Fundamental Motives.” Psychological Reports 95, no. 3 (2004): 795–802.
what Germans call Sehnsucht: Susanne Scheibe, Alexandra M. Freund, and Paul B. Baltes. “Toward a Developmental Psychology of Sehnsucht (Life Longings): The Optimal (Utopian) Life.” Developmental Psychology 43, no. 3 (2007): 778.
most important “aspirational goals”: Tim Kasser and Richard M. Ryan. “Further Examining the American Dream: Differential Correlates of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Goals.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 22, no. 3 (1996): 280–87.
“If you could have three wishes”: Laura A. King and Sheri J. Broyles. “Wishes, Gender, Personality, and Well-being.” Journal of Personality 65, no. 1 (1997): 49–76.
fewer intrinsic wishes than might be: Tim Kasser. “Aspirations Index,” http://faculty.knox.edu/tkasser/aspirations.html.
still want this type of popularity: Cameron Anderson, John Angus D. Hildreth, and Laura Howland. “Is the Desire for Status a Fundamental Human Motive? A Review of the Empirical Literature.” Psychological Bulletin 141, no. 3 (2015): 574–601.
first parts of the brain: Leah H. Somerville, Rebecca M. Jones, and B. J. Casey. “A Time of Change: Behavioral and Neural Correlates of Adolescent Sensitivity to Appetitive and Aversive Environmental Cues.” Brain and Cognition 72, no. 1 (2010): 124–33; Leah H. Somerville. “The Teenage Brain Sensitivity to Social Evaluation.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 22, no. 2 (2013): 121–27; B. J. Casey. “The Teenage Brain: An Overview.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 22, no. 2 (2013): 80–81.
“motivational relevance network”: Kristen A. Lindquist et al. “The Brain Basis of Emotion: A Meta-analytic Review.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 35, no. 3 (2012): 121–43; Kristen A. Lindquist and Lisa Feldman Barrett. “A Functional Architecture of the Human Brain: Emerging Insights from the Science of Emotion.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 16, no. 11 (2012): 533–40; Robert P. Spunt and Matthew D. Lieberman. “An Integrative Model of the Neural Systems Supporting the Comprehension of Observed Emotional Behavior.” Neuroimage 59, no. 3 (2012): 3050–59.
the brain’s likes and wants: Kent C. Berridge, Terry E. Robinson, and J. Wayne Aldridge. “Dissecting Components of Reward: ‘Liking,’ ‘Wanting,’ and ‘Learning.’” Current Opinion in Pharmacology 9, no. 1 (2009): 65–73.
our brain has caught up: Somerville, Jones, and Casey. “A Time of Change.” 124–33; Laurence Steinberg. Age of Opportunity: Lessons from the New Science of Adolescence. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2014.
refers to these links as: Berridge, Robinson, and Aldridge. “Dissecting Components of Reward.” 65–73.
or even just look at them: J. T. Klein, S. V. Shepherd, and M. L. Platt. “Social Attention and the Brain.” Current Biology 19, no. 20 (2009): R958–62; Jessica E. Koski, Hongling Xie, and Ingrid R. Olson. “Understanding Social Hierarchies: The Neural and Psychological Foundations of Status Perception.” Social Neuroscience 10, no. 5 (2015): 527–50; Noam Zerubavel, Peter S. Bearman, Jochen Weber, and Kevin N. Ochsner. “Neural Mechanisms Tracking Popularity in Real-world Social Networks.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 49 (2015): 15072–77.
longer than we look at others: Tom Foulsham et al. “Gaze Allocation in a Dynamic Situation: Effects of Social Status and Speaking.”Cognition 117, no. 3 (2010): 319–31.
we admire likes us in return: Christopher G. Davey et al. “Being Liked Activates Primary Reward and Midline Self-related Brain Regions.” Human Brain Mapping 31, no. 4 (2010): 660–68.
inhibitions when faced with social rewards: Leah H. Somerville, Todd Hare, and B. J. Casey. “Frontostriatal Maturation Predicts Cognitive Control Failure to Appetitive Cues in Adolescents.” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 23, no. 9 (2011): 2123–34.
own most basic attitudes and preferences: Erik C. Nook and Jamil Zaki. “Social Norms Shift Behavioral and Neural Responses to Foods.” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 27, no. 7 (2015): 1412–26.
psychologists call “reflected appraisal”: Susan Harter. “Developmental Processes in the Construction of the Self.” In Integrative Processes and Socialization: Early to Middle Childhood. Eds. T. D. Yawkey and J. E. Johnson. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: 1988, 45–78.
“emotional salience” network: Lindquist et al. “The Brain Basis of Emotion.” (2012): 121–43; Spunt and Lieberman. “An Integrative Model of the Neural Systems Supporting the Comprehension of Observed Emotional Behavior.” 3050–59.
“It’s much safer to say popularity sucks”: Cameron Crowe. Almost Famous. Directed by Cameron Crowe. Los Angeles: DreamWorks, 2000.
Valerie Jane disappeared: Jane Goodall. My Life with the Chimpanzees. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.
chimpanzees want to be popular: “Chimpanzee Facts,” http://www.janegoodall.org, accessed October 7, 2015; Peter Buirski, Robert Plutchik, and Henry Kellerman. “Sex Differences, Dominance, and Personality in the Chimpanzee.” Animal Behaviour 26 (1978): 123–29; Stephanie F. Anestis. “Behavioral Style, Dominance Rank, and Urinary Cortisol in Young Chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes).” Behaviour 142, no. 9–10 (2005): 1245–68.
Goodall calls Silaho: “Updates from the Islands—the Jane Goodall Institute,” http://www.janegoodall.org, accessed October 7, 2015.
observing a group of cheerleaders: Don E. Merten. “Being There Awhile: An Ethnographic Perspective on Popularity.” In Popularity in the Peer System. Eds. A. N. Cillessen, D. Schwartz, and L. Mayeux. New York: Guilford Press, 2011, 57–76.
hostile behavior as “proactive aggression”: Willard W. Hartup. “Aggression in Childhood: Developmental Perspectives.” American Psychologist 29, no. 5 (1974): 336; Konrad Lorenz. On Aggression. Trans. Marjorie Latzke. London: Methuen, 1966; Kenneth A. Dodge and John D. Coie. “Social-Information-Processing Factors in Reactive and Proactive Aggression in Children’s Peer Groups.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 53, no. 6 (1987): 1146.
“I’ve made fun of people”: “Cliques: Behind the Labels.” In the Mix. New York: Castleworks, 2000.
for teens to increase their status: Prinstein and Cillessen. “Forms and Functions of Adolescent Peer Aggression Associated wi
th High Levels of Peer Status.” 310–42; Cillessen and Rose. “Understanding Popularity in the Peer System.” 102–5.
Tom Cruise was known: “In Tense Moment, Cruise Calls Lauer Glib,” http://www.today.com/id/8344309#.WBuBSPorLa8, June 28, 2005.
McCarthy never claimed: Seth Mnookin. The Panic Virus: A True Story of Medicine, Science, and Fear. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011.
In 1975, 38 percent: Robert D. Putnam. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001.
Similar results were obtained: Joan Jacobs Brumberg. The Body Project: An Intimate History of American Girls. New York: Vintage, 2010.
proposed a hierarchy of needs: Abraham Harold Maslow. “A Theory of Human Motivation.” Psychological Review 50, no. 4 (1943): 370.
at least partially rooted in culture: Christopher S. Sheppard et al. “Is Popularity Universal? A Cross-cultural Examination of Popularity Among Peers.” Manuscript in preparation (2016); also see Li Niu, Shenghua Jin, Ling Li, and Doran C. French. “Popularity and Social Preference in Chinese Adolescents: Associations with Social and Behavioral Adjustment.” Social Development 25, no. 4 (2016): 828–45.
referred to as a “super-peer”: Jane D. Brown, Carolyn Tucker Halpern, and Kelly Ladin L’Engle. “Mass Media as a Sexual Super Peer for Early Maturing Girls.” Journal of Adolescent Health 36, no. 5 (2005): 420–27; Victor C. Strasburger, Barbara J. Wilson, and Amy B. Jordan. Children, Adolescents, and the Media. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing, 2009.
Joshua Gamson and Denis McQuail observed: Joshua Gamson. Claims to Fame: Celebrity in Contemporary America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994; Denis McQuail. Mass Communication. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1983; Violina P. Rindova, Timothy G. Pollock, and Mathew L. A. Hayward. “Celebrity Firms: The Social Construction of Market Popularity.” Academy of Management Review 31, no. 1 (2006): 50–71.
outcomes like depression: Marlene J. Sandstrom and Antonius H. N. Cillessen. “Likeable Versus Popular: Distinct Implications for Adolescent Adjustment.” International Journal of Behavioral Development 30, no. 4 (2006): 305–14.
interview over a dozen: Donna Rockwell and David C. Giles. “Being a Celebrity: A Phenomenology of Fame.” Journal of Phenomenological Psychology 40, no. 2 (2009): 178–210.
“I estimate that 50 percent”: “Faces of Depression: Philip Burguières” in the series Depression: Out of the Shadows + Take One Step: Caring for Depression, with Jane Pauley. PBS, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/takeonestep/depression/faces.html.
“[I’ve been] depressed”: “Imagine Dragons on Being ‘Atypical’ Rock Stars, and Singer Dan Reynolds on His Depression Struggles and Conflicts with His Mormon Faith.” Billboard, February 13, 2015, http://www.billboard.com/articles/6472705/imagine-dragons-cover-smoke-and-mirrors-touring-grammys.
“The cancer of attention”: “Ian Thorpe: ‘I Was Surrounded by People but Had This Intense Loneliness.’” The Guardian, November 12, 2012, https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/nov/12/ian-thorpe-swimming-depression.
Joe Allen and his colleagues: Allen, Schad, Oudekerk, and Chango. “Whatever Happened to the ‘Cool’ Kids?” 1866–80.
life satisfaction and well-being: Kennon M. Sheldon, Richard M. Ryan, Edward L. Deci, and Tim Kasser. “The Independent Effects of Goal Contents and Motives on Well-being: It’s Both What You Pursue and Why You Pursue It.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30, no. 4 (2004): 475–86.
CHAPTER 4. Herds and Headaches: How Our Bodies Are Programmed to Care About Popularity
An old house sits: Citizen Kane. Directed by Orson Welles. Los Angeles: RKO Radio Pictures, 1941.
largest global brands: “Rankings,” Interbrand, 2015, http://interbrand.com/best-brands/best-global-brands/2015/ranking.
Salganik and his colleague at Yahoo!: Matthew J. Salganik and Duncan J. Watts. “Leading the Herd Astray: An Experimental Study of Self-fulfilling Prophecies in an Artificial Cultural Market.” Social Psychology Quarterly 71, no. 4 (2008): 338–55.
Scottish journalist Charles MacKay: Charles MacKay. Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds. London: George Routledge and Sons, 1869.
“Men . . . think in herds”: Ibid.
Geoff Cohen and I examined: Geoffrey L. Cohen and Mitchell J. Prinstein. “Peer Contagion of Aggression and Health Risk Behavior Among Adolescent Males: An Experimental Investigation of Effects on Public Conduct and Private Attitudes.” Child Development 77, no. 4 (2006): 967–83.
about one of every four adolescents: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data (2015), retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/yrbs.
“You can’t sit with us!”: Mean Girls. Directed by Mark Waters. Los Angeles: Paramount, 2004.
not the only humanlike species: Nathalie Wolchover. “Why Did Humans Prevail?” Live Science, June 6, 2012, http://www.livescience.com/20798-humans-prevailed-neanderthals.html; Robert Boyd and Joan B. Silk. How Humans Evolved. New York: W. W. Norton, 2012; Robert C. Berwick, Marc Hauser, and Ian Tattersall. “Neanderthal Language? Just-So Stories Take Center Stage.” Frontiers in Psychology 4 (2013): 671.
Julianne Holt-Lunstad, a psychologist: Julianne Holt-Lunstad, Timothy B. Smith, and J. Bradley Layton. “Social Relationships and Mortality Risk: A Meta-analytic Review.” PLoS Med 7, no. 7 (2010): e1000.316.
top ten causes of death: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Web-Based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System (WISQARS) (2005), accessed December 14, 2016, http://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars.
ostracism from a peer group: Nicole Heilbron and Mitchell J. Prinstein. “Adolescent Peer Victimization, Peer Status, Suicidal Ideation, and Nonsuicidal Self-injury: Examining Concurrent and Longitudinal Associations.” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 56, no. 3 (2010): 388–419; Mitch Van Geel, Paul Vedder, and Jenny Tanilon. “Relationship Between Peer Victimization, Cyberbullying, and Suicide in Children and Adolescents: A Meta-analysis.” JAMA Pediatrics 168, no. 5 (2014): 435–42.
Kathleen Mullan Harris, a sociologist: Yang Claire Yang et al. “Social Relationships and Physiological Determinants of Longevity Across the Human Life Span.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113, no. 3 (2016): 578–83.
participating in a support group: David Spiegel, Helena C. Kraemer, Joan R. Bloom, and Ellen Gottheil. “Effect of Psychosocial Treatment on Survival of Patients with Metastatic Breast Cancer.” Lancet 334, no. 8668 (1989): 888–91; Bert N. Uchino, John T. Cacioppo, and Janice K. Kiecolt-Glaser. “The Relationship Between Social Support and Physiological Processes: A Review with Emphasis on Underlying Mechanisms and Implications for Health.” Psychological Bulletin 119, no. 3 (1996): 488.
cortisol has a Goldilocks-like quality: Bruce S. McEwen. “Stress, Adaptation, and Disease: Allostasis and Allostatic Load.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 840, no. 1 (1998): 33–44; Anna C. Phillips, Annie T. Ginty, and Brian M. Hughes. “The Other Side of the Coin: Blunted Cardiovascular and Cortisol Reactivity Are Associated with Negative Health Outcomes.” International Journal of Psychophysiology 90, no. 1 (2013): 1–7.
Casey Calhoun and I set out: Casey D. Calhoun et al. “Relational Victimization, Friendship, and Adolescents’ Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal Axis Responses to an In Vivo Social Stressor.” Development and Psychopathology 26, no. 3 (2014): 605–18; Ellen Peters, J. Marianne Riksen-Walraven, Antonius H. N. Cillessen, and Carolina de Weerth. “Peer Rejection and HPA Activity in Middle Childhood: Friendship Makes a Difference.” Child Development 82, no. 6 (2011): 1906–20; Casey D. Calhoun. “Depressive Symptoms and Acute HPA Axis Stress Regulation in the Context of Adolescent Girls’ Friendships.” Dissertation Abstracts International, forthcoming.
Neither Mary Sue nor her town: Pleasantville. Directed by Gary Ross. Los Angeles: New Line Cinema, 1998.
UCLA neuroscient
ist Naomi Eisenberger: Naomi I. Eisenberger, Matthew D. Lieberman, and Kipling D. Williams. “Does Rejection Hurt? An fMRI Study of Social Exclusion.” Science 302, no. 5643 (2003): 290–92; Naomi I. Eisenberger and Matthew D. Lieberman. “Why Rejection Hurts: A Common Neural Alarm System for Physical and Social Pain.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 8, no. 7 (2004): 294–300; Naomi I. Eisenberger. “Social Pain and the Brain: Controversies, Questions, and Where to Go from Here.” Annual Review of Psychology 66 (2015): 601–29.
implicate the same brain regions: Helen E. Fisher et al. “Reward, Addiction, and Emotion Regulation Systems Associated with Rejection in Love.” Journal of Neurophysiology 104, no. 1 (2010): 51–60; Ethan Kross et al. “Neural Dynamics of Rejection Sensitivity.” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 19, no. 6 (2007): 945–56; Harald Gündel et al. “Functional Neuroanatomy of Grief: An fMRI Study.” American Journal of Psychiatry 160, no. 11 (2003): 1946–53; Eisenberger. “Social Pain and the Brain.” 601–29.
taking a Tylenol: C. Nathan DeWall et al. “Acetaminophen Reduces Social Pain—Behavioral and Neural Evidence.” Psychological Science 21, no. 7 (2010): 931–37.
Some of its genes are turned: C. D. Allis, T. Jenuwein, D. Reinberg, and M. Caparros. Epigenetics. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2007.
human social genomics: George M. Slavich and Steven W. Cole. “The Emerging Field of Human Social Genomics.” Clinical Psychological Science 1, no. 3 (2013): 331–48.
“exquisitely sensitive to social rejection”: Personal interview with George Slavich, October 11, 2014.