Chop Suey : A Cultural History of Chinese Food in the United States
Page 28
Chinese cabbage, 71, 79, 99, 122
Chinese Cookery in the Home Kitchen (Nolton), 185
Chinese cuisine:
adventurousness in, 71, 75, 81, 153, 155, 199, 249–50
art of balance in, 67, 78, 85
art of cookery in, 67, 73, 74, 84
banquet tradition, 46, 47–48, 92–93, 218, 227, 228, 231, 235, 238
building blocks of, 67, 79, 92, 98
climate as influence on, 67, 70
cookbooks describing, 66–67, 217–19
cooking methods, 73, 76, 83–87, 98, 101, 154
cookware, 73–75, 75, 84, 87, 97, 98
decline of, under Mao, 227–28
delicacies of, 27, 28, 58, 93–94, 98
domesticated plants and animals in, 71, 72, 80, 81
dough cookery, 88–91
family-style meals, 94, 129, 218, 247
fan-cai dichotomy in, 79–80, 94, 98, 101, 134–35
fats and oils, 85–86, 92
fermented drinks, 75, 76, 91
fermented foods, 86–87, 91, 100
fish and shellfish, 67, 72, 81–82, 84–85, 86
flavorings in, 85–86, 98
food as medicine, 77–78, 98
food as ritual, 77, 92–93
food cut into small pieces, 23, 51, 84, 129, 158–59
fruits, 71, 82–83
geography as influence on, 67–70
grains, 71, 78–79, 83–84, 87–89, 91, 99
meats, 14, 23–24, 48, 80–81, 84–85, 86
noodles, 76, 88, 90–91, 95, 98
nuts, 71, 83
regional distinctions in, 99–102, 218
restaurant culture in, 34–35, 94–97, 98, 100–101
revolutions in, 87–91
rice, 57, 71, 72, 76, 78–79, 92
spices, 67, 83, 85–87, 98, 219
tableware, 33, 51, 67, 94, 104, 129
tea, 92, 95, 96–97
texture in, 86, 94, 241
vegetables in, 71, 79–80, 83–84, 86
See also Chinese food in America
Chinese culture:
banquet etiquette, 46, 47–48, 92–93, 235, 238
chopstick etiquette, 46, 48, 51, 63
early reference works on, 22– 24, 33–35, 56–59, 62–63
gender separation in, 44, 93, 94, 97
social hierarchies in, 93
See also Chinese cuisine; Imperial China
Chinese Exclusion Act, 142, 161, 205, 206, 216–17
Chinese food in America:
Americanization of, 191–92
in arts and entertainment, 168, 187–88, 191, 195–98, 200–204, 214
as cheap and filling, 159, 192, 203, 211, 251
cookbooks for, 185, 186, 217–19, 222, 248
on grocery shelves, 91, 192–94, 240, 250
home cooking of, 185–87, 192–94
influence of Nixon’s visit on, 240–43
Jewish embrace of, 198–205
post-World War II revitalization of, 217–24
stagnation in, 210–15, 216, 247
See also Chinese restaurants in America; chop suey; recipes
Chinese history:
Beijing Summer Olympics (2008), 248–50
Boxer Rebellion, 165–66
Communist takeover, 217, 220, 223, 225
Cultural Revolution, 226, 227, 229–30
early diplomacy with U.S., 38–50, 52, 53
free market reforms, 246
Han Dynasty. See Han Dynasty
Japanese invasion (1937), 205, 221
Korean War, 225
Li Hongzhang’s U.S. visit, 161–64, 240
Ming Dynasty, 17–18, 20, 98
Nixon and Kissinger visits, 224–39
Opium War, 36–37, 39, 40, 53
prehistoric, 16, 71, 81
Qin Dynasty, 57, 78
Qing Dynasty. See Qing Dynasty
Shang Dynasty, 73–75, 75, 85, 86
6000–3000 BCE, 71
Song Dynasty, 84, 85, 86, 94–95
and Soviet Union, 225
Tang Dynasty, 85, 89, 90
Tiananmen Square massacre, 247
Treaty of Nanking, 37, 39
Treaty of Wang Xia, 47, 49, 50, 52
Xia Dynasty, 72–73
Yuan Dynasty, 92, 99
Zhang Dynasty, 80
Zhou Dynasty, 75–76, 80, 81, 84, 86, 92
See also Emperors; Imperial China
Chinese Home Cooking (Sia), 207
The Chinese in America (Gibson), 127
Chinese-Japanese Cook Book (Bossé), 186
Chinese language:
pidgin, 9–10
teaching to barbarians, 29
See also Cantonese language; Mandarin language
“Chinese Museum,” 50
Chinese New Year, 77, 82
Chinese Repository, 33, 34, 55, 58, 59–60, 126
Chinese Restaurant News, 250–51
Chinese restaurants in America:
adapting to American tastes, 111–12, 132–33, 138, 139, 166, 167, 223, 243, 245–46, 251
affordability, 110–11, 138, 155, 159, 168, 211, 215
after Nixon’s visit to China, 240–43
alcohol in, 189, 191, 216
ambiance and decor, 104, 168–69, 213, 215, 220, 221, 222–23
authenticity in, 172, 210, 218–19, 251
banquet fare in, 124–26, 129–31, 131, 209–10, 220, 240
as “chop sueys,” 166–67, 169, 170
focus on Cantonese food, 210, 215–16, 218, 219, 244
franchises, 247–48
fusion, 248
home delivery, 246
immigration laws affecting, 214, 216, 223, 243–44, 246–47
nightlife in, 188–91, 207
non-Cantonese fare in, 218, 220, 221–23, 241–43, 244
patronage by African-Americans, 169
patronage by Bohemians, 156–59, 160, 169
patronage by Chinese Americans, 94, 128–29, 131, 138, 154–55, 159–60, 208–10
patronage by elites, 107, 148, 156, 169–70
patronage by whites, 124–28, 131–34, 133, 156, 159–60, 166, 203–5
Polynesian themes in, 215–16
professionalism in, 111, 112, 244
profitability of, 191, 212, 216
spread from New York across country, 169–75
stagnation in, 210–15, 216, 247
ubiquity of, 250
“white slavery” associations, 184–85
See also New York City Chinatown; San Francisco Chinatown
Chinese trade:
anti-foreign bias in, 9, 21, 29, 54
with Asia, 19, 57, 68, 83
with Britain, 8–9, 35–36
Guangzhou factories for, 7, 8–9, 20
imperial trade goods, 2, 15, 26, 57
pidgin language used in, 9–10
with Portugal, 21
with post-revolutionary America, 10, 15, 35–36, 39–41
revenues from, 9, 19–20, 21
with San Francisco merchants, 118–19, 120, 134, 137–38
silver as currency in, 26, 28
tea, 2, 15, 16, 22, 26, 92
in Xia Dynasty, 72
See also American traders in China
The Chinese Traveller (1772), 23, 24, 25
“Chink, Chink, Chinaman” (Williams), 196
Chin Lee’s (nightclub), 189–91
Chinois-on-Main (restaurant), 248
Chongqing, 228
chopsticks:
American use of, 218, 240, 241, 250
anecdotes by non-native users, 14, 30, 33, 106, 125, 127
in Chinese culinary tradition, 51, 91
etiquette of, 46, 48, 51, 63
and Kissinger, 232
and Nixons, 224–25, 225, 236, 238–39
chop suey:
American craze for, 160–67, 175–76, 179, 191–92
Americanization of, 191–95, 198, 205
in arts and entertainment, 19
5–98
diners’ anecdotes, 158, 161, 170, 172
ingredients, 154–55, 160–61, 164
legends surrounding, 163–65, 176–79
noodles, 147, 168
origins of, 154–55, 160–61
printed recipes for, 164, 165, 185, 194
and western culinary tradition, 176
Chop Suey & Company (movie), 195
“Chop Suey, Chow Mein” (Prima and Smith), 197
Chop Suey Dancers #2 (Marsh), 197
Chop Suey (Hopper), 197–98
“Chop Suey” (Rogers and Hammerstein), 197
“chop suey sundaes,” 194
Chouqua (Chinese merchant), 13–14
“chowhounds,” 157
chow mein, 168, 192, 194, 198, 210
Christianity, 20, 31, 63, 207
See also missionaries
Chu Gain, 181, 182
Chu, Grace, 222
Chui Sing Tong, 104
Chung Fah Low (restaurant), 144, 145–48
Chung, Henry, 241
cinnamon, Chinese, 85
citrus, 82
See also Sichuan pepper; specific fruits
City Wok, 247
Claiborne, Craig, 221–23
The Classic of Tea (Lu), 92
Clemens, William M., 183
Colfax, Schuyler, 103, 104, 106
Committee to Save China’s Children, 209–10
Communist takeover of China, 217, 220, 225
ConAgra Foods, 194
Confucianism, 18–19, 20, 44
Confucius, 23, 79, 153
on civilization, 73
on food, 75–76, 83–84
on water, 76, 91
congee, 66, 73, 76, 95, 206, 218
Connors, Chuck, 195
Constitutional Convention, 16
“Conversations with a Chorus Girl” (M’Cardell), 168
cookbooks, Chinese:
for American readers, 185, 186, 217–19, 222, 248
for Chinese Hawaiians, 207
of imperial China, 67, 99
See also recipes
cookbooks, Jewish, 203
cooking methods:
boiling, 73, 76, 84–85, 87
braising, 85
cookbooks discussing, 219
grilling, 85
for meats, 84–85
poaching, 84–85, 100
steaming, 73, 76, 84–85, 87, 100, 154, 250
stir-frying, 85, 87, 101, 250
cookware:
bamboo steamers, 84
bronze ware, 73–75, 75
ceramic steamers, 84
cooking pots (guo and wok), 87
cooking stoves (zao), 87
of street vendors, 97
Cool, Mrs. Russel, 173
cormorants, 6
corn, 83
“Cornet Chop Suey” (Armstrong), 196
Covarrubias, Miguel, 197
crab rangoon, 216
crabs, 99
Crawford, Joan, 204
Crocker, Charles, 137
Crow, Carl, 177–78
crustaceans, 82
See also crabs; shrimp
cubeb, 134
cucumbers, 83, 101
cuisine. See Chinese cuisine; Chinese food in America; Western culinary traditions
Culinary Institute of America, 247
culinary traditions. See Chinese cuisine; Western culinary traditions
Cultural Revolution, 226, 227, 229–30
curry, 12, 44, 45, 111
Cushing, Caleb:
as ambassador to China, 38–39, 41, 42, 44, 50, 51
culinary anecdotes about, 52, 153–54, 235
dairy products:
Chinese aversion to, 58, 61
in kosher practice, 198, 204
Manchu taste for, 46, 93, 99
in western diet, 44, 45, 46
Daoguang Emperor, 36–37, 68
Daoism, 75
dates, Chinese, 82
Deadwood, S.D., 139
Dean, William, 61–62
de Groot, Roy Andries, 241
Delmonico’s, 156, 162
Deng Xiaoping, 246
The Detectress (movie), 195
“Diet of the Chinese” (Williams), 34–35, 58
dim sum, 236
in American restaurants, 125, 130–31, 132–33, 154, 244
origins of, 97, 100
recipes for, 218
tallying bill for, 97
dog meat:
in Chinese cuisine, 23–24, 74, 80, 81, 85
diners’ anecdotes of, 52, 61
as stereotyped Chinese food, 58–59
dogs:
domestication of, 71, 72, 81
at street markets, 23–24, 32
domesticated plants and animals, 71–72
Dongbei dishes, 244
Don the Beachcomber restaurants, 215–16
“dot hearts,” 97, 218
See also dim sum
dough cookery, 88–91
Doyers Street, 209
Dreiser, Theodore, 171–72
duck meat:
in Chinese cuisine, 67, 81, 100, 230–31
See also Peking duck
ducks:
domestication of, 6, 25
eggs of, 126, 136
Dufferin, Lady, 56
Du Halde, Jean-Baptiste, 23, 24, 28
Dulles, John Foster, 236
dumplings, 76, 89, 90, 206, 219
Dupont Street (Grant Avenue). See San Francisco Chinatown
Dynasties. See Chinese history
Eastern regional cuisine of China, 67, 99
East is West (movie), 195
Eddington, Jane, 185
egg drop soup, 244
egg rolls, 210, 216, 251
1893 World’s Columbian Exposition, 171
Eight Treasure Rice, 82
Elder, Will, 214
Eldorado, or Adventures in the Path of Empire (Taylor), 115
emperors of China:
Daoguang Emperor, 36–37, 68
exalted role of, 16–17, 77
foods enjoyed by, 47–49, 81–82
Jade Emperor, 82
Qianlong Emperor, 17
and trade revenues, 9, 19, 21
and tribute system, 17, 19–20
“Yellow” Emperor, 73, 78
Yongle Emperor, 20
Yü Emperor, 17, 18
See also Imperial China
Empire Szechuan (restaurant), 244–45
Empress (restaurant), 215
Empress of China (merchant ship):
cargo, 1–2, 25–26
as pioneer of Chinese-American trade, 1–2, 5–7, 10, 15–16, 25–26, 250
shipboard cuisine, 2–3, 4, 5
Empress of China (restaurant), 220
entertainment:
in Chinese restaurants, 188–91, 207
See also arts and entertainment
etiquette:
of Chinese banquets, 46, 47–48, 92–93, 235, 238
of chopsticks, 46, 48, 51, 63
European, 11–13
of Imperial China, 43–44, 46–48
in post-revolutionary America, 11
of western-style banquets, 44–46
Europeans:
in Chinese treaty ports, 53–55
etiquette of, 11–13
in Guangzhou, 28–29
settlement of Macau, 21, 26
writings by, 22–24
See also British traders; western culinary traditions
Evans, Albert S., 119
Evanston, Wyoming, 139
Everest, Mount, 68
factories of Guangzhou, 20
American, 26
British, 8–9, 12
foreigners’ confinement to, 7, 9, 13, 26, 28–29
fan-cai dichotomy, 79–80, 94, 98, 101, 134–35
farming. See agriculture
fast food:
in America, 239–40, 248
in China, 248–49, 250
S
ee also franchise restaurants
fats, 85–86, 92
Fenollosa, Ernest, 170
fen si (cellophane noodles), 91
fermentation:
of beverages, 75, 76, 91
of foods, 86–87, 100
fish:
in Chinese cuisine, 67, 72, 81, 84–85, 99, 100, 101
diners’ anecdotes, 33–34
fermentation of, 86
fishing:
by Chinese Americans, 119–20
Chinese cultural history of, 6, 81, 100, 101
fish sauce, 87
Five Years in China (Taylor), 63
flatbreads, 88
flavorings:
in Chinese cuisine, 85–87, 98
See also sauces; spices
flour, milling of, 76, 87–88
Flower Drum Song (musical), 197
Flushing, N.Y., 251
food therapy, Chinese, 78
Forbidden City (imperial court), 17, 21
Forbidden City (nightclub), 189, 190
Forman, Allan, 157–58, 161
Four Districts (Sze Yap) region, 101–2, 113, 159, 161, 210
Four Seas (restaurant), 223
France:
as American ally, 4, 11
cuisine of, 107, 155–56
franchise restaurants, 247–49
Franklin, Benjamin, 23
Freeman, Charles, 227, 239
French cuisine, 107, 155–56
French, John B., 60–61
fried rice, 210, 216
fried wontons, 210
frogs, in Chinese cuisine, 23, 24, 63, 81
fruit:
in Chinese cuisine, 71, 82–83, 83–84, 101
in food therapy, 78
See also specific fruits
Fujian dishes, 244
Fujian Province, 99, 127, 246
fusion restaurants, 248
Fu Xi, 72
Fuzhou, 53, 99, 246
galangal, 134
Gang of Four, 232
Gantt, Ernest R.B., 215
garlic, 59, 79–80, 85, 99
Geary Act, 142
geese, 81
General History of China (Du Halde), 23, 24, 25
“General Tso’s Chicken,” 241–43, 251
German immigrants, 149, 151
Gibson, Otis, 127
ginger:
in Chinese cuisine, 30, 84, 85, 98, 99
in regional cuisines, 100
ginseng, as trade good, 1–2, 15, 25–26, 26–27
gluten, 89–90
Gold Mountain, 102, 109
Gold Mountain firms, 118
gold rush:
Black Hills, 139
California, 102, 107–10, 112–14, 115, 134
See also mining camps
Gompers, Samuel, 141
Good Housekeeping, 165
Goodnow, Elizabeth, 184
gourds, 80, 101
gourmet culture:
at Beijing Olympics, 250
of imperial courts, 47–49
in modern China, 81
in New York City, 157, 221, 223–24
in Shunde, 101
in Song Dynasty, 94–95
grains:
in Chinese cuisine, 71, 78–79, 83–84, 87–89, 91, 99